Q.India’s recent military operations and defence innovations have showcased its growing self-reliance in defence manufacturing. Discuss with reference to Operation Sindoor and associated developments in indigenous defence capabilities.
Introduction:
India’s defence landscape has undergone a transformational shift from dependence on foreign suppliers to self-reliance in defence technology and manufacturing. Operation Sindoor, recently highlighted by the Prime Minister in Varanasi, served as a symbolic and strategic demonstration of India’s counter-terrorism capabilities and the rising strength of its indigenously developed military technologies such as air defence systems, drones, and missiles.
Body:
Operation Sindoor and Its Strategic Significance:
- Conducted in response to the April 22 terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Operation Sindoor was a decisive and high-impact retaliation against terror bases across the Line of Control (LoC), demonstrating India’s offensive defence doctrine.
- The operation symbolized the shift from strategic restraint to strategic deterrence, reiterating India’s policy of zero tolerance towards terrorism, even if retaliation requires action across borders.
Indigenization of Defence – Technologies on Display:
- Air Defence Systems, drones, and missiles, all designed under the Make in India initiative, played a key role in the operation.
- Systems like BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles and indigenous combat UAVs showcased India’s operational readiness and technological maturity.
- According to SIPRI (2024), India remains among the top 3 military spenders globally but has reduced arms imports by 23% between 2013–2017 and 2018–2022, a direct result of indigenization efforts.
Defence Industrial Ecosystem – Recent Developments:
- Uttar Pradesh Defence Industrial Corridor (UPDIC) is emerging as a critical hub, with BrahMos manufacturing units coming up in Lucknow, enhancing regional employment and strategic capacity.
- The Government of India allocated ₹1.72 lakh crore (approximately 68% of the defence capital procurement budget in FY 2024–25) for domestic procurement, signalling commitment to self-reliance.
- DRDO, HAL, and private players like Tata Advanced Systems and Bharat Forge are collaborating to produce cutting-edge platforms.
PM-KISAN and Welfare Angle in Security Discourse:
- The ₹20,500 crore transfer under the 20th PM-KISAN instalment during the same visit reflects a holistic model of security + development in the national vision.
- Welfare schemes build trust in governance, which is vital in counter-insurgency and internal stability efforts.
Way Forward:
- Strengthen R&D: Enhanced funding and global partnerships for DRDO, BEL, and ISRO for dual-use technologies.
- Export Orientation: Leverage recent defence export momentum (crossing ₹21,000 crore in FY 2023–24) by integrating MSMEs in the global value chain.
- Cyber and AI Integration: Develop AI-driven battlefield intelligence and secure communication channels for hybrid warfare scenarios.
- Strategic Communication: Build narratives of strength to counter propaganda from non-state and state actors through proactive media engagement.
Conclusion:
Operation Sindoor stands as a watershed moment in showcasing the synergy of national unity, military capability, and indigenous technology. India’s march towards self-reliance in defence is not merely strategic but also symbolic of a confident, assertive, and technologically empowered nation. The focus now must be on consolidating these gains through sustainable innovation, inclusive defence ecosystems, and proactive security strategies.
Link with Syllabus:
- GS Paper III: Internal Security – Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security; Role of media and social networking sites in internal security challenges; Basics of cyber security; Security challenges and their management in border areas; Linkages of organized crime with terrorism; Various Security Forces and Agencies.
- Science and Technology – Indigenization of technology and developing new technology.
Previous Year Linkages:
- UPSC 2023 (GS III): “Discuss the contribution of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in developing indigenous defence technologies.”
- UPSC 2020 (GS III): “What are the determinants of left-wing extremism in Eastern part of India? What strategy should the government adopt to counter the threats posed by LWE?”
- UPSC 2015 (GS III): “Religious indoctrination via digital platforms is a serious internal security threat. Discuss.”
Sources:
- Ministry of Defence Annual Report 2024
- DRDO Annual Review
- SIPRI Military Expenditure Database (2024)
- Press Information Bureau (May 2025)
- Budget Documents 2025–26, GoI
Q. Discuss the recent eviction drives in Assam from forestlands and their impact on inter-State relations in the Northeast. Examine the constitutional, environmental, and socio-political dimensions of the issue.
Introduction:
Assam’s ongoing eviction drives from forestlands, particularly targeting encroachments in reserve forests and wetlands, have triggered regional tensions across Northeast India. While rooted in environmental and legal imperatives, the aggressive implementation, especially against migrant Bengali Muslims, has raised concerns over federal harmony, human rights, and ethnic tensions.
Body:
- Background and Legal Justification:
- The Gauhati High Court has directed Assam to clear illegal encroachments from forestlands, leading to periodic eviction drives since 2016.
- The Forest Rights Act, 2006, provides rights to tribals living in forests before 2005, but many non-tribal settlers are excluded from protection.
- The Union Environment Ministry (2024) noted that over 3,620.9 sq km of Assam’s forests were under encroachment.
- Political and Social Dimensions:
- The Assam government, under the BJP, links these actions to securing jaati (identity), maati (land), and bheti (home).
- Critics allege the evictions target Bengali-speaking Muslims, often referred to as ‘Miyas’ or ‘illegal Bangladeshis’, especially around sensitive areas like Kaziranga, Darrang, and Goalpara.
- The death of at least five people since 2016 and eviction of over 1,080 families in July 2025 from Paikan Reserve Forest have highlighted humanitarian concerns.
- Federal and Interstate Implications:
- Neighbouring States — Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh — are alarmed by the potential spillover of evicted populations into their territories.
- Many of these States have historic border disputes with Assam, rooted in their creation from Assam between 1963 and 1972.
- As per Assam Assembly records (March 2025), over 83,000 hectares of Assam’s land is allegedly under occupation by the four neighbouring States.
- Recent Developments and Judicial Oversight:
- On July 30, 2025, the Gauhati High Court directed all five States to form a high-level committee for coordinated action to remove illegal forestland encroachments.
- Several border States have ramped up inner-line permit scrutiny, police deployment, and civil society mobilization to block entry of displaced persons.
Way Forward:
- Humanitarian Resettlement: Eviction must be accompanied by rehabilitation policies, particularly for long-term settlers, women, and children.
- Clarification of Land Rights: Accelerate settlement of land titles under the Forest Rights Act and involve local Gram Sabhas in decision-making.
- Interstate Coordination: Utilize Inter-State Council mechanisms and Northeast Zonal Council to proactively resolve border disputes.
- Depoliticization: Avoid communal or identity-based rhetoric; ensure actions are law-based, not vote-based.
- Transparent Criteria: Make eviction criteria, protected categories, and legal justifications public to reduce arbitrariness.
Conclusion:
The Assam eviction drives underscore the complex interplay of environment, identity, and federal governance in Northeast India. While securing ecologically sensitive lands is imperative, it must be balanced with inclusive governance, legal safeguards, and inter-State cooperation. A just, transparent, and humane approach is key to maintaining regional peace and national unity.
Link with UPSC Mains Syllabus:
- GS Paper II:
- Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure
- Mechanisms, laws, institutions, and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections
- GS Paper III:
- Internal Security: Security challenges and their management in border areas
- Conservation, environmental degradation, and Environmental Impact Assessment
Relevant Previous Year Questions:
- UPSC GS II 2023: Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile neighbours. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management.
- UPSC GS II 2020: The interstate disputes have often been a source of tension in Indian federalism. Discuss with recent examples.
- UPSC GS III 2018: How does illegal migration from neighbouring countries impact internal security in India? Discuss the effective measures to be taken to tackle this issue.
Sources:
- Gauhati High Court Orders (July 2025)
- Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) – NGT Report (2024)
- Assam Legislative Assembly Records (March 2025)
- Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India
- Forest Rights Act, 2006
- Northeast Zonal Council Reports
Q. Examine the strategic significance of the U.S. designation of The Resistance Front (TRF) as a Foreign Terrorist Organisation. How does this development impact India’s counter-terrorism diplomacy and regional security?
Introduction
Terrorism continues to be a major threat to India’s internal security and regional peace. In a significant diplomatic win for India’s global counter-terrorism campaign, the United States designated The Resistance Front (TRF)—a proxy of Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT)—as a Foreign Terrorist Organisation (FTO) and Specially Designated Global Terrorist (SDGT) in July 2025. This move comes after TRF claimed responsibility for the April 22 Pahalgam attack, which killed 26 civilians, highlighting the transnational nature of terror threats in South Asia.
Body
- Nature of the Threat
- TRF is a LeT proxy, formed post-August 2019 to give a local name to cross-border terrorism in Kashmir.
- The group has been involved in multiple attacks on Indian civilians and security forces, including the 2024 Pulwama ambush and the April 2025 Pahalgam massacre.
- It uses social media for radicalization and recruitment, masking Pakistan’s involvement under the guise of “local resistance”.
- U.S. Designation: Legal and Diplomatic Importance
- Under the U.S. Immigration and Nationality Act, designation as an FTO freezes TRF’s assets in the U.S. and prohibits material support.
- The SDGT tag by the U.S. Treasury triggers international banking restrictions, impairing funding and logistics.
- It reflects international validation of India’s long-standing position that Pakistan supports terror networks.
- Strengthening India-U.S. Counter-Terror Ties
- This move is a testament to growing India-U.S. strategic convergence on security.
- It follows the U.S.-India Counterterrorism Joint Working Group and defense dialogues under the 2+2 format.
- External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar called the move “a strong affirmation” of bilateral counter-terrorism cooperation.
- Impact on Regional Security
- Adds pressure on Pakistan to dismantle terror infrastructure within its territory.
- Enhances global legitimacy of India’s surgical and diplomatic responses to terrorism.
- Aligns with India’s goal to list terror entities at the UN Security Council, where China often blocks moves against Pakistan-based groups.
Way Forward
- India must leverage this momentum to press for multilateral actions at UN and FATF forums.
- Enhance intelligence-sharing mechanisms with allies like the U.S., Israel, and EU nations.
- Build robust cyber monitoring frameworks to disrupt digital propaganda by groups like TRF.
- Promote a regional anti-terror architecture with South Asian neighbors for cooperative security.
Conclusion
The U.S. designation of TRF as a terrorist organisation is not merely symbolic—it’s a strategic endorsement of India’s counter-terror narrative. It reflects increasing global consensus on holding state-sponsored proxies accountable, especially in volatile regions like Kashmir. Going forward, such developments must be integrated into a coordinated global counter-terror strategy, led by responsible democracies like India and the United States.
Syllabus Linkage:
- GS Paper II: India and its bilateral relations; international institutions and agreements; role of external state and non-state actors.
- GS Paper III: Challenges to internal security through terrorism; linkage of organized crime with terrorism; role of external state actors.
Previous Year Question Links:
- UPSC Mains GS II 2020: “Terrorism is emerging as a competitive industry over the last few decades. Analyse the above statement.”
- UPSC Mains GS III 2019: “Cross-border terrorism is a major obstacle in the Indo-Pakistan relations. Examine the measures taken by India to counter this menace.”
- UPSC Mains GS II 2022: “What are the challenges to India’s internal security from its neighbourhood? Discuss the strategic measures to counter them.”
Sources:
- U.S. State Department Press Release (2025)
- Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India (2025)
- NCRB Report 2023
- FATF Grey List Tracker (OECD)
- India-U.S. Counterterrorism Joint Statement (April 2024)
Q. The newly launched Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY) seeks to integrate multiple agricultural schemes under a single umbrella. Critically evaluate this approach in the context of declining public investment in agriculture. Suggest the way forward.
Introduction
The Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PMDDKY), launched in 2025 with an outlay of ₹24,000 crore per annum for six years, aims to transform India’s agricultural productivity by converging 36 existing Central schemes across 11 Ministries. The scheme targets 100 low-productivity districts, modeled on the Aspirational Districts Programme, and seeks to address inter- and intra-state disparities through district-level planning, PPP models, and indicator-based monitoring.
However, while convergence is an efficient strategy, it must be accompanied by increased public investment and participatory governance to achieve meaningful outcomes.
Body
- Key Features of PMDDKY
- Scheme convergence: Integrates PM-KISAN, PM Fasal Bima Yojana, and state-level schemes.
- Targeted districts: 100 districts identified based on low cropping intensity, productivity, and credit flow.
- Focus areas: Crop diversification, value addition, water and soil conservation, and self-reliance in edible oils and pulses.
- Governance mechanism: Monthly monitoring of 117 indicators through District Dhan Dhaanya Samitis.
- Need for the Scheme
- Agricultural disparities: Significant inter-regional differences in productivity, input access, and irrigation coverage.
- Declining public outlay: As per the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture (2025), allocation to agriculture as a % of the Central Plan outlay has declined from 3.53% (2021–22) to 2.51% (2025–26).
- Food security concerns: Area sown under kharif pulses and oilseeds declined in 2024–25, raising questions about nutritional and import security.
- Concerns with Umbrella Approach
- Uniformity vs. Diversity: Agriculture in India is highly region-specific; excessive centralization may ignore local agro-climatic needs.
- Fiscal compression: Subsuming schemes without enhancing the total outlay may dilute specific benefits (e.g., PMFBY coverage).
- Limited state autonomy: Top-down convergence may undermine state innovations and farmer-centric planning.
- Over-reliance on PPPs: Without regulation, partnerships could prioritize profits over farmer welfare.
Way Forward
- Enhance public investment: Allocate at least 4% of total plan outlay to agriculture to meet rising demands (as suggested by NITI Aayog).
- Participatory governance: Involve local governments, FPOs, agri-cooperatives, and universities in planning and monitoring.
- State-specific customization: While maintaining national goals, allow district flexibility based on agro-climatic data.
- Monitor outcomes, not just outputs: Focus on value addition, income enhancement, and resilience indicators.
- Sustainability focus: Link PMDDKY indicators with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—especially SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 13 (Climate Action).
Conclusion
PMDDKY is a timely initiative with the potential to streamline fragmented agricultural schemes and create a unified push for self-reliance. However, its success depends not just on convergence but on sufficient public investment, local participation, and contextual flexibility. As India aspires for doubling farmers’ income and climate-resilient agriculture, PMDDKY must prioritize inclusive planning, accountability, and bottom-up innovation to truly transform the rural economy.
Syllabus Linkage:
- GS Paper III: Issues related to agriculture, Government policies and interventions, e-technology in the aid of farmers, Minimum support prices, Public Distribution System, etc.
Previous Year Question Linkage:
- UPSC GS Paper III 2022: “What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification?”
- UPSC GS Paper III 2020: “How far is the Integrated Farming System (IFS) helpful in sustaining agricultural production?”
- UPSC GS Paper III 2018: “Assess the role of National Agricultural Market (e-NAM) in integrating farmers with markets.”
Sources:
- Press Information Bureau (PIB), July 2025
- Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture (2025) – Report on Demands for Grants
- NITI Aayog Reports on Agricultural Productivity
- Ministry of Agriculture – Crop Coverage Report (Kharif 2024)
Q. Critically examine the evolving China-Pakistan defence nexus and assess the strategic implications for India. In this context, discuss the validity and limitations of the "reinforced one-front war" concept.
Introduction
The concept of a “reinforced one-front war” refers to a scenario where China and Pakistan act jointly and simultaneously against India, both militarily and strategically. This has gained traction in Indian strategic circles due to deepening Sino-Pak defence collaboration, but requires nuanced scrutiny. While concerns are valid, overstating operational integration can distort threat perception and strategic responses.
Body
- China-Pakistan Defence Ties: Depth Without Jointness
- China is Pakistan’s largest arms supplier, providing UAVs (Wing Loong), missile systems (HQ-16), and naval platforms (Type 054 frigates).
- Satellite support via BeiDou navigation system assists Pakistan’s missile targeting capabilities.
- Diplomatic shielding at the UNSC and joint exercises reinforce the partnership, yet lack joint command structures.
- Example: Operation Sindoor allegedly saw Chinese real-time weapons monitoring, but this is common arms supplier practice, not evidence of unified planning.
- Differentiated Strategic Interests
- Pakistan views India as an existential threat with direct territorial and ideological conflicts (e.g., Kashmir).
- China views India as a regional competitor, not an existential enemy. Its principal strategic rival remains the United States.
- China seeks regional stability with manageable competition, not direct military entanglement on behalf of Pakistan.
- Absence of Joint Operational Planning
- No evidence of shared war doctrines, joint command, or integrated logistics akin to NATO or U.S.–South Korea alliances.
- India itself imports from Russia, France, and the U.S., without implying shared military objectives — a parallel misused in reverse for Pakistan-China.
- Overstating the Threat: Strategic Pitfalls
- A rigid “one-front” lens can lead to misallocation of resources, over-preparation for low-probability scenarios, and limited diplomatic flexibility.
- Risk of self-fulfilling prophecy: Assuming inevitable collusion may push India towards maximalist stances, reducing space for crisis de-escalation.
Way Forward
- Strategic clarity: Recognize the asymmetric yet non-integrated nature of the China-Pak nexus.
- Focus on deterrence and resilience rather than mirror build-ups.
- Leverage diplomatic channels with China, emphasizing mutual interest in regional stability.
- Strengthen border infrastructure, surveillance, and intelligence capabilities in both Western and Eastern theatres.
- Enhance military modernisation with focus on joint commands and rapid force mobility, especially under the Theatre Command reforms.
Conclusion
The China-Pakistan nexus undoubtedly complicates India’s security calculus, but the idea of a “reinforced one-front war” overstates their coordination and misreads strategic realities. India must base its military and diplomatic responses on clear-eyed assessments, avoiding the trap of inflated threat perceptions. Strategic foresight and balanced preparedness, not rhetorical overreach, are the need of the hour.
Link to UPSC Mains Syllabus:
- GS Paper III: Internal Security – Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security; security challenges and their management in border areas; linkages between development and spread of extremism.
Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):
- 2020: “Analyse internal security threats and transborder crimes along India’s north-western borders. Also discuss the role of various security forces in this regard.”
- 2017: “The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief account of CPEC and examine India’s objections to it.”
- 2014: “India’s proximity to two nuclear armed neighbours and its deterrence doctrine calls for serious attention. Comment.”
Sources:
- Ministry of Defence Annual Report 2023-24
- SIPRI Arms Transfer Database (2023)
- Observer Research Foundation (ORF) articles
- Abhijit Singh, retired naval officer, ORF
- Ministry of External Affairs briefings on CPEC
- Lok Sabha Parliamentary Standing Committee on Defence (2023)
Q. Despite constitutional safeguards and judicial guidelines, custodial violence remains a persistent issue in India. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of existing mechanisms to prevent custodial torture. Suggest reforms to strengthen accountability and institutional response.
Introduction
Custodial violence undermines the rule of law and violates the right to life and dignity under Article 21 of the Constitution. Despite Supreme Court guidelines and international human rights obligations, India continues to witness frequent custodial deaths—like the recent case of Ajith Kumar in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district (2025). This raises serious concerns about the efficacy of existing legal, institutional, and oversight mechanisms.
Body
Why Custodial Violence Persists
- Lack of a Standalone Anti-Torture Law: India has not ratified the UN Convention Against Torture, nor enacted a specific law criminalizing torture, reflecting limited political will.
- Entrenched Police Culture: A colonial mindset, hierarchical policing, and valorization of aggression create an environment where torture is normalized, especially against the poor and marginalized.
- Inadequate Training and Resources; Most police personnel lack access to scientific interrogation techniques and forensic tools, leading to a continued reliance on physical coercion.
- Perfunctory Judicial Oversight: Although Section 57 of the CrPC mandates production of the accused before a magistrate within 24 hours, this safeguard is often reduced to a formality without physical examination or inquiry into mistreatment.
- Weak Implementation of Supreme Court Guidelines: In Paramvir Singh Saini v. Baljit Singh (2020), the SC mandated CCTV surveillance in police stations, yet compliance is minimal. Torture often takes place in informal locations, away from official premises.
- Police Complaints Authorities (PCAs) Ineffective:Despite the Prakash Singh judgment (2006), most states have not established independent PCAs, or have diluted their autonomy by including serving officers.
- Section 27 of Indian Evidence Act (1872): Allows admissibility of evidence recovered from coerced confessions, indirectly legitimizing custodial torture.
Way Forward
- Enact a Comprehensive Anti-Torture Law: Based on recommendations by the Law Commission of India (273rd Report), the law should define torture, provide penal consequences, and reverse the burden of proof in custodial death cases.
- Strengthen Magisterial Oversight: Mandate detailed recording of physical condition and specific inquiry into any abuse allegations during remand hearings.
- Ensure Full Compliance with CCTV Norms: Install and maintain functional cameras at all custody points; footage access should be legally guaranteed to victims and families.
- Independent and Empowered PCAs: Ensure that retired judges and civil society members, not serving police personnel, form the core of complaint authorities at the district and state levels.
- Community Policing and Civil Society Engagement: Encourage awareness campaigns to empower citizens, particularly vulnerable groups, with knowledge of their rights and complaint mechanisms.
- Modernize Police Training: Institutionalize forensic science, human rights education, and non-coercive interrogation methods within police training academies.
Conclusion
Custodial torture is not an aberration but a symptom of structural weaknesses and social inequities in India’s law enforcement. Preventing it requires more than legal safeguards—it demands institutional transformation, public accountability, and a shift in the ethos of policing from control to service and protection.
Linked Syllabus:
- GS Paper II: Governance, Role of Civil Services, Judiciary, Transparency and Accountability
- GS Paper III: Internal Security, Challenges to Human Rights
Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:
- GS II (2021): “Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance.” In this context, suggest reforms in civil service for strengthening democracy.
- GS II (2020): “Judicial legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers.” In light of the statement, evaluate the role played by the judiciary in ensuring justice.
- GS II (2016): “Police reforms have been long overdue.” Discuss the steps taken and suggest measures for holistic police reform.
Sources:
- Supreme Court Judgments: Paramvir Singh Saini v. Baljit Singh (2020), Prakash Singh v. Union of India (2006)
- Law Commission of India (273rd Report)
- Indian Evidence Act, 1872 (Section 27)
- National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 2023
- The Hindu, July 2025
Q. India’s move to establish a domestic MRO facility for the S-400 air defence system marks a strategic shift in defence preparedness. Critically examine the significance of this development in the context of India’s defence indigenization goals and evolving geopolitical challenges.
Introduction
India’s defence strategy is increasingly driven by the dual imperatives of strategic autonomy and technological self-reliance. In this context, the recent decision to set up a Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility for the Russian-origin S-400 ‘Sudarshan Chakra’ air defence system marks a milestone in India’s defence modernization efforts. This move aligns with the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ and ‘Make in India in Defence’ initiatives and addresses critical vulnerabilities posed by external supply chain disruptions and sanctions.
Body
Strategic Importance of the S-400 System
- India procured five S-400 Triumf systems from Russia under a $5.43 billion deal signed in 2018. Three systems have been delivered; two more are expected by 2027.
- Officially named ‘Sudarshan Chakra’, the S-400 played a key role in intercepting Pakistani drones and ballistic missiles during Operation Sindoor (May 2025), launched in retaliation for the Pahalgam terror attack.
Significance of the Indigenous MRO Facility
- Reduces Foreign Dependence: Collaboration with Russia’s Almaz-Antey to establish MRO capabilities locally reduces India’s reliance on foreign vendors for critical system upkeep.
- Enhances Operational Readiness: Domestic servicing ensures quicker turnaround times for system maintenance and sustains combat readiness.
- Overcomes Sanctions and Supply Chain Risks: In a world increasingly defined by geopolitical fragmentation, such as the U.S. CAATSA sanctions risk, India’s domestic MRO facility insulates it from external political constraints.
- Promotes Indigenous Capability: The selection of an Indian firm, after rigorous capability testing and security vetting, is a significant step under the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 and the broader ‘Make in India’ defence ecosystem.
Defence Diplomacy and Geopolitical Implications
- The move reflects deeper India-Russia defence cooperation, reaffirmed during the SCO 2025 Defence Ministers’ Meet in China.
- It also signals India’s strategic autonomy in choosing defence partners and technologies, amidst pressure from Western powers to diversify away from Russian platforms.
Way Forward
- Technology Transfer and Skill Development: Ensure that the MRO facility becomes a centre for absorbing advanced technologies and developing indigenous human capital in radar, missile, and tracking systems.
- Expand MRO Ecosystem: Build similar facilities for other imported platforms like SU-30MKIs, MIG-29s, and naval systems to ensure long-term self-reliance.
- Strengthen Domestic R&D: Leverage DRDO and private defence innovators to develop future alternatives to imported systems.
- Multilateral Defence Engagements: Balance dependence by diversifying procurement from Western, Israeli, and indigenous sources, as seen in projects like Akash-NG, Astra missile, and UAV development.
Conclusion
Establishing a domestic MRO facility for the S-400 is more than a technical upgrade—it represents India’s maturing strategic posture. It reflects the country’s intent to indigenize critical capabilities, shield national security from geopolitical shocks, and assert its position as a self-reliant global defence player.
Linked Syllabus:
- GS Paper II: International Relations – Bilateral Relations (India-Russia), Strategic Interests
- GS Paper III: Internal Security – Defence Technology, Indigenization of Defence Production, Role of MRO
Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:
- GS III (2023): “India’s growing defence exports reflect its emergence as a major global defence player. Critically examine.”
- GS III (2021): “What is the status of indigenization in defence in India? Discuss the steps taken to reduce dependency on imports.”
- GS II (2019): “Bilateral relations between India and Russia are rooted in history. In light of recent developments, evaluate the scope of the relationship in the defence and energy sectors.”
Sources:
- Ministry of Defence, GoI – Annual Report 2023-24
- Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP), 2020
- The Hindu (July 2025) – Operation Sindoor and S-400 Updates
- SCO Defence Ministers’ Meet Press Release, 2025
- DRDO and HAL Defence Indigenization Reports
Q. Discuss the significance of India’s role in the FATF’s “Comprehensive Update on Terrorist Financing Risks” report in the global fight against terror financing. How does this enhance India’s position in counter-terror diplomacy?
Introduction:
The Financial Action Task Force (FATF), a global watchdog on money laundering and terror financing, plays a critical role in shaping global financial transparency and anti-terror regimes. In July 2025, FATF released its “Comprehensive Update on Terrorist Financing Risks”, marking the first official global recognition of state-sponsored terrorism. India, long a victim of cross-border terrorism, played a key role in framing this report, significantly boosting its counter-terrorism diplomacy and global advocacy efforts.
Body:
India’s Contribution to the FATF Report:
- India was one of the key contributors to the report, alongside the UN Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED) and France.
- The report recognized state sponsorship of terrorism for the first time, a demand India has consistently raised in global forums.
- India’s 2022 National Risk Assessment (NRA) flagged state-sponsored terrorism from Pakistan as a significant threat.
- Indian banks and financial institutions have since implemented enhanced due diligence, particularly on transactions involving Pakistan.
Highlights of the Report:
- Acknowledgement of terrorist financing through state-sponsored means, including the smuggling of oil from Iran to Pakistan, as a source of terror funding.
- FATF’s recognition increases global scrutiny of such funding networks, raising the cost of doing business for entities involved in suspect financial operations.
- The findings are expected to influence subsequent NRAs globally. The U.S. 2024 National Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment already includes Pakistan-based threats.
Significance for India:
- Validates India’s long-standing position on cross-border terrorism and enhances strategic legitimacy in naming state actors like Pakistan.
- Helps create a global consensus around more stringent KYC and transaction screening norms targeting state-supported entities.
- Strengthens India’s campaign for global reforms in terror financing oversight, particularly in multilateral forums like the UN, G20, and FATF.
Way Forward:
- Diplomatic Leverage: Use the FATF report to build pressure on countries shielding terror groups and seek multilateral sanctions where applicable.
- Institutional Strengthening: Enhance capacity of Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs), border customs, and financial regulators in terror finance detection.
- Tech-Enabled Surveillance: Leverage AI-based transaction monitoring systems to track suspicious cross-border flows.
- Global Alliances: Build coalitions with like-minded democracies to promote FATF compliance, especially in South Asia and Africa.
Conclusion:
India’s pivotal role in shaping the latest FATF terror financing risk report marks a significant achievement in its counter-terror diplomacy. By spotlighting state-sponsored terrorism, India has pushed for a paradigm shift in the global narrative, moving from reactive containment to proactive deterrence. This not only strengthens its internal security architecture but also bolsters its image as a responsible global leader in combating terrorism.
Syllabus Linkage:
- General Studies Paper III:
- Internal Security: Linkages of organized crime with terrorism
- Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security
- Money laundering and its prevention
- Security challenges and their management in border areas
Previous Year Linkage:
- 2020: “India’s internal security challenges are increasingly being linked with cross-border terrorism.” Discuss with reference to the role of neighboring countries.
- 2015: “Religious indoctrination via digital platforms poses a serious internal security threat.” Discuss measures to prevent it.
- 2017: “The scourge of terrorism is a grave challenge to national security.” Discuss the role of international cooperation in combating terrorism.
Sources:
- FATF Report: Comprehensive Update on Terrorist Financing Risks (2025)
- Government of India: National Risk Assessment on ML/TF (2022)
- Ministry of Home Affairs (Annual Report 2024–25)
- U.S. Department of Treasury: National Terrorist Financing Risk Assessment (2024)
- IGNOU: Security Studies and Internal Security Modules
Q. “The recent SEBI action against Jane Street highlights the vulnerabilities of Indian financial markets to sophisticated manipulative strategies.” Discuss the implications of this case for financial market regulation in India and suggest reforms to enhance transparency and investor protection.
Introduction:
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), the country’s capital market regulator, has barred U.S.-based Jane Street Group and its affiliates for manipulative trading practices in the Bank Nifty index, resulting in unlawful gains of ₹4,843 crore. This case has exposed systemic vulnerabilities in regulatory oversight, especially in the derivatives and high-frequency trading (HFT) segments.
Body:
- Key Findings by SEBI:
- Manipulative Scheme: Jane Street entities engaged in aggressive buying of Bank Nifty stocks/futures to inflate the index temporarily.
- Subsequently, they reversed positions with aggressive selling, pushing the index down.
- Meanwhile, the group built large bearish options positions (worth ₹32,114 crore), profiting from the artificially induced volatility.
- Regulatory Evasion: By incorporating Indian entities, Jane Street bypassed FPI restrictions on cash market trades.
- Implications for Indian Financial Markets:
- Market Manipulation: The trades misled retail investors and distorted price discovery, undermining market integrity.
- Regulatory Arbitrage: Exploitation of loopholes between FPI and domestic entity regulations reflects the sophistication of financial manipulation.
- Risk to Investor Confidence: High-profile manipulation erodes trust in Indian capital markets, especially among small investors.
- Data-Driven Surveillance Success: SEBI’s detection using granular algorithmic and transaction-level data shows growing capability in surveillance.
Way Forward:
- Strengthen Algorithmic Trade Oversight: Mandatory audit trails and enhanced scrutiny of high-frequency and programmatic trading.
- Tighten FPI Regulations: Harmonize rules for subsidiaries and Indian-incorporated arms of FPIs to prevent regulatory arbitrage.
- Introduce Real-Time Market Surveillance Tools: Similar to NASDAQ’s SMARTS system, India must invest in AI-driven fraud detection platforms.
- Improve Investor Education: Alert small investors about complex derivatives-based manipulation tactics.
- Empower SEBI Enforcement: Fast-track regulatory action with specialised benches for economic offences.
Conclusion:
The SEBI-Jane Street case is a wake-up call to modernize regulatory frameworks in line with evolving global trading strategies. It also demonstrates SEBI’s growing proficiency in detecting and prosecuting white-collar manipulation, a crucial pillar of investor protection. Going forward, a multi-layered, technology-driven oversight ecosystem, along with harmonized legal provisions, is vital for ensuring financial integrity and market resilience.
Syllabus Mapping:
- GS Paper III: Indian Economy – Capital market and regulation
- GS Paper III: Internal Security – Money laundering and economic offences
- GS Paper III: Governance – Role of regulators (SEBI)
Relevant PYQs:
- GS III (2023): “What are the main functions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)? Explain how SEBI has been able to ensure transparency in the securities market.”
- GS III (2016): “The nature of economic offences has changed with digital and financial innovation. Comment.”
Sources:
- SEBI Order on Jane Street Case (2025)
- Ministry of Finance Annual Economic Review (2024–25)
- RBI Handbook on Indian Financial Markets
- Economic Survey 2024–25
Q. Discuss the strategic and technological significance of Project 17A stealth frigates for India's maritime security and defence self-reliance.
Introduction:
India’s push towards self-reliance in defence manufacturing under the Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan has led to notable achievements in naval power projection. One such milestone is the delivery of INS Udaygiri, the second indigenous stealth frigate under Project 17A, in a record time of 37 months. These warships signify both technological advancement and strategic autonomy, crucial for ensuring maritime security in the Indo-Pacific region.
Body:
- Strategic Importance of Project 17A Frigates:
- Project 17A is the successor to the Shivalik-class frigates (Project 17), aimed at bolstering blue-water operational capability.
- INS Udaygiri is the second of seven stealth frigates being built by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd (Mumbai) and Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (Kolkata).
- Designed to operate in open-ocean conditions, these frigates enhance India’s capacity to respond to both conventional and asymmetric maritime threats.
- Technological Features and Capabilities:
- Stealth Technology: Reduced radar cross-section enhances survivability in hostile waters.
- Advanced Weapons Suite:
- Supersonic surface-to-surface missiles,
- Medium-range surface-to-air missile system,
- 76 mm naval gun,
- Close-in weapon systems (30 mm and 12.7 mm guns) for anti-aircraft and missile defence.
- Sensor Systems: Integration of state-of-the-art radar, sonar, and combat management systems.
- Design Innovation: Represents a “quantum leap” in indigenous design capabilities by the Indian Navy’s Warship Design Bureau.
- Symbol of Atmanirbhar Bharat in Defence:
- The rapid construction of INS Udaygiri showcases improved indigenous shipbuilding capacity and project management.
- Reduces dependence on foreign warship procurement, contributing to defence self-reliance.
- Aligns with the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020, which emphasizes domestic content and local industry participation.
Way Forward:
- Timely Completion of Remaining Vessels:
- Ensure that all seven Project 17A ships are delivered by 2026 as scheduled, with robust quality assurance.
- Export Promotion:
- India can emerge as a net defence exporter, offering frigates to Indian Ocean Region (IOR) partners.
- Strengthen Naval R&D Ecosystem:
- Invest further in DRDO–Navy collaboration for next-gen stealth, propulsion, and autonomous navigation systems.
- Strategic Partnerships:
- Integrate with broader maritime diplomacy efforts like SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) and Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness.
Conclusion:
The induction of INS Udaygiri under Project 17A exemplifies India’s transition from a buyer to a builder in high-tech naval platforms. It not only augments India’s maritime deterrence but also symbolizes the nation’s rise as a regional security provider in the Indo-Pacific. A continued focus on indigenous warship programs is vital for strategic autonomy and securing maritime interests in the 21st century.
UPSC GS Paper III Syllabus Linkage:
- Security challenges and their management in border areas — linkages of organized crime with terrorism.
- Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.
- Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.
- Indigenization of technology and developing new technology.
Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:
- GS III, 2022: “Defence indigenization is a crucial component of India’s strategic autonomy. Discuss.”
- GS III, 2020: “To what extent is India’s naval strength sufficient to meet regional aspirations and security challenges?”
- GS III, 2015: “Discuss the advantage India has in its geographical position in the Indian Ocean Region.”
Sources:
- Ministry of Defence Press Release (July 2025)
- PIB on Project 17A Frigates
- Annual Report 2023–24, Ministry of Defence
- Indian Navy’s Warship Design Bureau Reports
- DAP 2020 – Ministry of Defence, GoI
Q. The evolving global stance on terror financing, especially with the FATF’s acknowledgement of state-sponsored terrorism, has implications for India’s counter-terror strategy. Discuss.
Introduction
Terrorism is increasingly recognized not merely as a security threat, but also as a financial and geopolitical challenge. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF), an intergovernmental watchdog on money laundering and terror financing, has recently condemned the Pahalgam terror attack (April 2025), highlighting the financial enablers of terrorism. This marks a significant shift as FATF has, for the first time, decided to acknowledge state-sponsored terrorism in its upcoming global report—an issue India has long highlighted, particularly in relation to Pakistan.
Body
- Importance of FATF’s Role
- FATF sets global standards to prevent the illegal movement of funds that finance terrorism.
- It uses a grey list and blacklist mechanism to apply pressure on countries found supporting or neglecting anti-terror financing frameworks.
- Significance of FATF’s Condemnation of the Pahalgam Attack
- Only the third such condemnation in a decade, underscoring the severity and global concern over the attack.
- Recognizes that such attacks are enabled by cross-border financial networks, often backed or tolerated by state actors.
- State-Sponsored Terrorism: Acknowledgment and Impact
- For the first time, FATF is including “state sponsorship” as a formal category in its report on terrorist financing.
- This aligns with India’s National Risk Assessment (NRA), which already designates Pakistan’s support to cross-border terrorism as a key risk.
- May bolster India’s efforts to push for Pakistan’s re-inclusion in the FATF grey list.
- Diplomatic and Strategic Implications for India
- Validates India’s diplomatic stance in multilateral forums about Pakistan’s involvement in terror financing.
- Supports India’s campaign for global accountability and sanctions against nations enabling terrorism.
- Could aid in justifying India’s counter-terror pre-emptive measures (e.g., Balakot air strikes) as internationally valid.
- Toolkit and Capacity Building
- FATF is developing a Terror Financing Risk & Context Toolkit to counter misleading national reports, especially from jurisdictions like Pakistan.
- India can now collaborate with FATF and strengthen public-private partnerships to ensure banking and fintech vigilance.
Way Forward
- Strengthen domestic coordination between intelligence agencies, financial regulators (e.g., RBI, FIU-IND), and enforcement bodies (ED, NIA).
- Promote bilateral and multilateral cooperation for cross-border intelligence sharing on suspicious financial flows.
- Push for FATF reforms to include more enforceable actions against states found complicit in sponsoring terrorism.
- Raise public and diplomatic awareness using forums like UNSC, G20, and BRICS, aligning with FATF’s framework.
Conclusion
The FATF’s recognition of state-sponsored terrorism as a distinct financial threat marks a turning point in the global counter-terrorism narrative. For India, which has long been the victim of cross-border terrorism, this shift offers both diplomatic validation and an opportunity to recalibrate its counter-terror finance architecture. Vigilance, policy alignment, and multilateral engagement will be key to leveraging this momentum for long-term national and regional security.
Syllabus Linkage:
GS Paper II – International Relations: Important international institutions, agencies and fora – their structure and mandate
GS Paper III – Security: Linkages of organized crime with terrorism, money-laundering and terror financing
Previous Year Questions:
- Q. The linkage between money laundering and terrorism is a serious concern for global security. Analyse the steps taken by India to counter this menace. (GS III – 2021)
- Q. India’s proximity to Afghanistan and the porous borders with Pakistan and Myanmar make it vulnerable to terrorism and organized crime. Discuss the challenges and measures. (GS III – 2019)
Q. Discuss the strategic significance of rare earth elements (REEs) for India in the backdrop of China’s export restrictions. Evaluate India’s preparedness in securing critical mineral supply chains.
Introduction:
Rare Earth Elements (REEs), comprising 17 chemically similar metals, are indispensable in high-technology applications—ranging from semiconductors and clean energy to defence and medical systems. With China refining over 85% of the world’s REEs, its recent export restrictions amid the US-China trade war have reignited global concerns over critical mineral dependence. For India, this scenario presents both a strategic challenge and an opportunity.
Body:
- Strategic Significance of REEs:
- REEs like dysprosium, samarium, and gadolinium are critical for defence (e.g., fighter jets, radars), electronics (e.g., smartphones, hard drives), and renewable energy (e.g., wind turbines, EVs).
- India’s estimated 6% global REE reserves hold vast strategic potential, especially as it aims for self-reliance under “Atmanirbhar Bharat.”
- China’s Leverage and Its Implications:
- China’s export restrictions disrupt global REE supply chains, affecting manufacturing worldwide.
- These restrictions underline the fragility of concentrated supply and India’s dependence on imports—2,270 tonnes in 2023–24 alone.
- India’s Current Capabilities and Gaps:
- India’s light REE extraction via Indian Rare Earths Ltd (e.g., monazite from Kerala beach sands) remains limited.
- Environmental concerns and lack of refining tech hamper full-scale exploitation.
- Heavy REE processing is virtually absent, leading to import dependence.
- Government Initiatives:
- National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM): Aims to secure critical mineral supply chains through:
- 1,200 exploration projects.
- Foreign partnerships and import diversification.
- Licensing reforms to encourage private sector participation.
- Plans to auction critical mineral blocks and improve domestic processing capacities.
Way Forward:
- Technology Transfer & R&D: Collaborate with countries like Japan and Australia for refining technologies.
- Strategic Reserves: Build stockpiles akin to Japan’s REE strategy to absorb external shocks.
- Environmental Mitigation: Promote green mining technologies and stricter EIA norms to balance development and ecology.
- Public-Private Partnerships: Enable Indian companies to participate in global mining ventures (e.g., in Africa, Australia).
- Skill Development: Train human resources in critical mineral geoscience and metallurgy.
Conclusion:
China’s REE export restrictions are a wake-up call for India to reduce its dependence on foreign critical mineral supply chains. The National Critical Mineral Mission is a timely intervention, but its success will depend on robust implementation, innovation, and international collaboration. Strengthening domestic capabilities in REE exploration, processing, and recycling is essential for India’s economic security and technological sovereignty.
Syllabus Link:
- GS Paper 3 – Economic Development, Science and Technology
- Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy.
- Indigenization of technology and developing new technology.
- Infrastructure – energy, ports, roads, airports, and railways.
- Science and Technology – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
Previous Year Questions Link:
- 2023: “Explain the changes in cropping pattern in India in the context of changes in consumption pattern and marketing conditions.”
- 2020: “How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are the striking changes in agriculture triggered off by the science-based technologies?”
- 2019: “What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space program?”
Q. "The recent U.S. restrictions on Nvidia’s AI chip exports to China highlight the growing intersection of technology, geopolitics, and national security." Discuss the implications of such export controls on global semiconductor supply chains, India’s strategic interests, and the future of AI development.
Introduction
The U.S. government’s decision to impose licensing requirements on Nvidia’s AI chip exports to China marks a critical juncture in the geopoliticization of technology. This move, aimed at curbing China’s military AI advancements, underscores how semiconductors have become a strategic battleground in U.S.-China rivalry. The restrictions not only disrupt global supply chains but also accelerate China’s push for self-reliance, reshaping the AI and semiconductor industries.
Body
- Geopolitical & Economic Implications
- The U.S. export controls on Nvidia’s H20 and other AI chips aim to limit China’s military AI capabilities, including autonomous weapons and surveillance.
- Nvidia faces a $5.5 billion revenue loss, highlighting the risks of over-reliance on China (20% of its revenue).
- China’s response includes boosting domestic semiconductor production, with firms like Huawei developing alternatives, potentially reducing Western dominance.
- Impact on Global Semiconductor Supply Chains
- The restrictions disrupt AI development in Chinese tech giants (Alibaba, Tencent, ByteDance), forcing them to seek non-U.S. suppliers.
- Dutch firm ASML and AMD also face ripple effects, indicating a broader decoupling of U.S.-allied tech ecosystems from China.
- The rise of Chinese firm DeepSeek, allegedly bypassing U.S. restrictions via intermediaries, shows the challenges of enforcing export controls.
- Strategic Implications for India
- Opportunity for India: As U.S.-China tech tensions rise, India can position itself as an alternative semiconductor hub under the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) and Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme.
- Security Concerns: India must balance AI collaborations with the West while avoiding over-dependence on Chinese tech, especially in defense and critical infrastructure.
- Need for Self-Reliance: The crisis reinforces the importance of domestic R&D in AI and chip manufacturing, as seen in initiatives like MeitY’s AI roadmap.
Way Forward
- Strengthening Domestic Capabilities: India should fast-track semiconductor fabs and design innovation under ISRO, DRDO, and private partnerships.
- Diplomatic Balancing: Engaging with both U.S. (Chips Alliance) and non-aligned tech markets (Taiwan, South Korea) to secure supply chains.
- Regulatory Framework: Implementing export control mechanisms akin to U.S. policies to safeguard dual-use AI technologies.
Conclusion
The Nvidia-China episode exemplifies how technology is now a frontline in geopolitical conflicts. For India, this presents both challenges and opportunities—to reduce import dependence, foster indigenous AI innovation, and strategically align with global tech alliances while safeguarding national security interests.
Syllabus Link & Previous Year Questions
- GS III: Science & Technology (Indigenization of tech, AI, Semiconductors)
- GS III: Economy (Global supply chains, Export controls)
- GS III: Internal Security (Cyber warfare, Dual-use tech)
Previous Year Questions:
- “What are the main hurdles in India’s semiconductor industry? Suggest measures to make India a global hub.” (UPSC 2023)
- “Examine the strategic implications of AI in modern warfare.” (UPSC 2022)
Q91. “China’s export restrictions on Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and their implications for India’s critical mineral security.”
Introduction
Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are indispensable for modern technologies, including semiconductors, defense systems, and renewable energy solutions. Recently, China—which controls over 90% of global REE processing—imposed export restrictions on seven heavy REEs, escalating concerns over supply chain vulnerabilities. While India’s current REE imports remain minimal due to nascent manufacturing capabilities, the long-term risks of over-reliance on China necessitate strategic interventions under initiatives like the National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM).
This question aligns with UPSC GS-III (Economy, Security, and Technology) and connects with previous year themes:
- 2023: “Discuss the significance of critical minerals for India’s economic and strategic interests.”
- 2021: “Examine India’s challenges in securing supply chains for strategic resources.”
Body
- Limited Immediate Impact on India
- Low Current Dependence: India imported only 2,270 tonnes of REEs (2023-24), primarily for R&D and early-stage electronics manufacturing (e.g., Tata’s Hosur facility).
- Indirect Exposure: As highlighted by Atsuya Technologies, India relies on US/Europe for finished chips, but disruptions in Chinese supplies to these regions could indirectly affect India.
- Defense & Electronics Lag: Unlike China, India lacks large-scale semiconductor fabs and advanced defense manufacturing that heavily depend on REEs.
- Long-Term Strategic Vulnerabilities
- Geopolitical Risks: China’s dominance in REEs (similar to its antimony export curbs in 2023) exposes India to coercive economic tactics.
- Critical Minerals List (30 Items): The Ministry of Mines identifies REEs as vital for renewables, EVs, and aerospace, necessitating supply chain resilience.
- NCMM’s Slow Progress: While the mission aims to boost exploration and auctions (e.g., light REEs in Odisha), India lacks refining capabilities, leaving it dependent on imports.
- Policy Measures & Challenges
- Diversification Efforts: Post-COVID, India seeks alternative suppliers (Australia, Vietnam) and invests in deep-sea mining (UNCLOS exploration rights).
- Production-Linked Incentives (PLIs): Schemes for semiconductors and electronics aim to reduce import reliance, but scale-up remains slow.
- Research & Funding Gaps: Unlike China’s state-backed REE monopolies, India’s private sector lacks incentives for high-risk mineral processing.
Way Forward
- Accelerate Domestic Mining: Fast-track exploratory licenses under NCMM, focusing on heavy REEs in Kerala & Tamil Nadu.
- Global Partnerships: Join the Minerals Security Partnership (US-led bloc) to secure diversified supplies.
- Boost Refining Capabilities: Invest in public-private ventures for REE processing, learning from Australia’s Lynas Corporation model.
- Stockpiling & Recycling: Create strategic reserves and promote urban mining (e-waste recycling) to reduce fresh imports.
Conclusion
While China’s REE restrictions pose minimal immediate disruption to India, the episode underscores the urgency of critical mineral security. By integrating NCMM with Make in India, fostering international collaborations, and incentivizing domestic refining, India can mitigate future supply shocks. As Minister Vaishnaw noted, the post-COVID world demands resilient supply chains—a lesson India must apply to its mineral strategy.
Syllabus Link:
- GS-III: Indian Economy (Resource Mobilization), Security (Supply Chain Resilience), S&T (Semiconductors & Electronics)
- Previous Years: 2023 (Critical Minerals), 2021 (Strategic Resources), 2019 (China’s Economic Leverage)
Q. The concerns over an artificial intelligence (AI) arms race have become increasingly pronounced. Scholars like Eric Schmidt and his collaborators argue that AI, particularly Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), could become a strategic tool that states must address in terms of security and competition. However, their analogy of AI to nuclear weapons, and the proposals they put forth, have been criticized. Critically examine the proposals presented by Schmidt, Hendrycks, and Wang, and evaluate whether AI poses the same security concerns as nuclear weapons. What should be the way forward in addressing the strategic impact of AI?
Introduction
Artificial Intelligence (AI), especially the concept of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), has raised concerns about its potential to disrupt global security dynamics. As AI continues to evolve, experts like Eric Schmidt, Dan Hendrycks, and Alexandr Wang have highlighted the need for states to prepare for its strategic implications. However, their proposals, notably the analogy of AI to nuclear weapons, have been critically questioned in academic and policy circles. This essay critically examines the comparison of AI to nuclear weapons and evaluates the strategic implications proposed by these scholars, while suggesting a more feasible way forward in addressing AI’s security challenges.
Body
The primary proposal made by Schmidt, Hendrycks, and Wang is the establishment of a Mutual Assured AI Malfunction (MAIM), which draws an analogy to Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) in the nuclear context. This suggests that states should deter the development of dangerous superintelligent AI by threatening preemptive destruction of ‘rogue’ AI projects. However, this analogy is problematic. Unlike nuclear weapons, AI projects are decentralized and diffuse across the globe, making them harder to target or destroy. Furthermore, the assumption that states can destroy or sabotage AI projects with the same effectiveness as they can nuclear infrastructure overlooks the highly distributed nature of AI research.
Additionally, the proposal to control AI chip distribution as one would nuclear materials is also flawed. Once AI systems are trained, they no longer require continuous resources like enriched uranium, making the enforcement of such a control system unfeasible. Moreover, the assumption that AI-powered cyberattacks and bioweapons are inevitable may be overly speculative, given that many AI advancements are still driven by the private sector and not solely by state entities.
Another critical flaw is the presumption that AI development will mirror the state-driven model of nuclear weapons, which fails to account for the rapid growth and accessibility of AI research in the private sector. Furthermore, the idea of preemptive sabotage could lead to unintended consequences, including unnecessary escalation and military conflict, making this approach unworkable and dangerous.
Way Forward
Instead of drawing comparisons to nuclear weapons, a more viable approach would involve treating AI as a General Purpose Technology (GPT). AI, like GPTs, has broad applications across industries, influencing everything from healthcare to defense. Policymakers should focus on international cooperation, transparency, and regulation to ensure AI development aligns with global security standards. The development of AI should also be accompanied by stringent ethical guidelines to prevent misuse, especially in areas like cyber warfare and bioweapons.
To address the strategic implications of AI, there is a need for more comprehensive scholarship on its impact. Existing frameworks, such as the GPT theory, can help policymakers understand AI’s broader diffusion across sectors, while mitigating potential threats through global norms and cooperative frameworks. States must focus on preparing their cybersecurity frameworks and strategic doctrines to handle the emerging threats of AI without relying on outdated analogies to nuclear deterrence.
Conclusion
The concerns over AI as a strategic tool are legitimate but must be approached with a clear understanding of its nature and development. The comparison to nuclear weapons, while interesting, is not entirely appropriate due to the fundamental differences in how AI and nuclear technologies function and spread. A more nuanced and proactive approach is needed, one that emphasizes international cooperation, regulatory frameworks, and ethical AI development. Only through increased scholarship and thoughtful policymaking can states be prepared for the challenges posed by AI and its potential to reshape global security.
Link to Previous Year’s Questions
This question is related to the UPSC Mains 2020 paper, where questions on new technologies, their security implications, and their impact on international relations were explored. A similar question was asked in GS Paper II, Question 5 (2020), which discussed the role of new technologies like AI in global diplomacy and security frameworks.
Q. Discuss the significance of India’s ‘Harmonised List’ on export control of dual-use and military items, including software and technologies. What is the primary objective of strategic export controls on defence equipment? Also, suggest a way forward to strengthen India’s defence export regulatory framework.
Introduction
India has established a robust legal and regulatory framework for strategic trade controls to regulate the export of dual-use and military items. The Harmonised List, maintained under the Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment and Technologies (SCOMET), ensures that sensitive technologies and defence equipment are exported responsibly, balancing economic interests with global non-proliferation commitments.
Significance of the Harmonised List
- Prevents Proliferation of WMDs: The list restricts unauthorised transfers of dual-use items that could contribute to Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) and their delivery systems.
- Regulates Military Exports: It ensures that defence equipment, software, and technologies are exported only under strict licensing, preventing misuse.
- Aligns with International Commitments: India adheres to global regimes like the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), Wassenaar Arrangement, and Australia Group, reinforcing its credibility as a responsible defence exporter.
- Boosts Defence Exports: By streamlining export controls, India has increased defence exports to over ₹23,622 crore (2024-25), targeting ₹50,000 crore by 2029.
Primary Objective of Strategic Export Controls
The key objective is to:
- Prevent WMD proliferation and unauthorised transfers of conventional arms.
- Ensure compliance with international treaties (e.g., Chemical Weapons Convention).
- Safeguard national security by controlling sensitive technology exports.
- Maintain neutrality in conflicts, as seen in India’s refusal to supply artillery shells to Israel or kinetic weapons to Russia/Ukraine.
Way Forward to Strengthen Export Controls
- Enhance Digital Systems: Further digitise licensing processes via online portals to reduce delays and improve transparency.
- Private Sector Involvement: Encourage private defence manufacturers through simplified licensing and export incentives.
- Global Outreach: Expand defence diplomacy by engaging more countries under the Defence Export Promotion Policy.
- Strict Monitoring Mechanism: Strengthen end-user verification to prevent diversion of sensitive technologies.
- Regular Policy Updates: Align the SCOMET list with emerging technologies (e.g., AI, drones) to address new security challenges.
Conclusion
India’s strategic export control framework plays a crucial role in balancing economic growth with global security obligations. By streamlining regulations, boosting private participation, and leveraging digital solutions, India can emerge as a leading responsible defence exporter while safeguarding its strategic interests.
Q. "The ring of fire around Iran is tightening." In light of recent developments, analyze the geopolitical tensions involving Iran, the U.S., and Israel. What are the implications of these tensions for West Asia and global security? Suggest a way forward to prevent further escalation.
Introduction
Recent escalations in West Asia, marked by U.S. airstrikes in Yemen, Israel’s renewed offensive in Gaza and Lebanon, and Iran’s expanding nuclear program, highlight the growing tensions in the region. The U.S. and Israel are intensifying pressure on Iran’s “axis of resistance,” while Iran responds with strategic defiance. This geopolitical tussle has far-reaching implications for regional stability and global security.
Geopolitical Tensions: Key Developments
- U.S.-Iran Nuclear Stalemate:
- The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) aimed to curb Iran’s nuclear program but collapsed after the U.S. withdrew in 2018 under Trump.
- Iran has since accelerated uranium enrichment, now possessing 60% enriched uranium (enough for six bombs if further enriched).
- Trump’s renewed outreach for talks seeks to restrict Iran’s nuclear and military capabilities, but Tehran insists on indirect negotiations.
- Israel’s Mini-Regional War Strategy:
- Israel seeks to weaken Iran’s “axis of resistance” (Hamas, Hezbollah, Houthis) through military strikes.
- The fall of Syria’s Assad regime (Iran’s key ally) has disrupted supply lines to Hezbollah, weakening Iran’s deterrence.
- Israel’s refusal to withdraw from Gaza and Lebanon indicates a long-term strategy to isolate Iran.
- Escalating Military Confrontations:
- U.S. airstrikes on Houthis in Yemen and Israeli attacks on Hezbollah in Lebanon signal a coordinated effort to pressure Iran.
- Iran’s retaliatory strikes on Israel (after the Damascus embassy bombing) show its willingness for direct confrontation.
Implications for West Asia and Global Security
- Regional Destabilization: Prolonged conflict risks wider war, drawing in Hezbollah, Hamas, and Gulf states.
- Nuclear Proliferation Risk: If Iran feels cornered, it may rush for a nuclear weapon, triggering a regional arms race.
- Economic Fallout: Attacks on shipping (e.g., Houthi strikes in Red Sea) disrupt global trade, raising oil prices.
- Humanitarian Crisis: Continued warfare in Gaza and Lebanon exacerbates displacement and suffering.
Way Forward
- Diplomatic Engagement:
- Revive JCPOA-like frameworks with realistic compromises, ensuring Iran’s nuclear program remains peaceful.
- Encourage EU and regional actors (China, Russia, Oman) to mediate, reducing U.S.-Iran hostility.
- De-escalation Measures:
- Ceasefire enforcement in Gaza and Lebanon to prevent spillover conflicts.
- Establish direct U.S.-Iran communication channels to avoid miscalculations.
- Regional Stability Efforts:
- Address root causes of conflict, including Palestinian statehood and Yemen’s civil war.
- Promote economic incentives (sanctions relief) for Iran in exchange for concessions on missile programs.
- Global Cooperation:
- UN-led peace initiatives to prevent unilateral military actions.
- Multilateral security guarantees for Gulf states to reduce reliance on militarization.
Conclusion
The tightening “ring of fire” around Iran underscores the volatile geopolitics of West Asia. While Israel and the U.S. seek to weaken Iran’s influence, a military-first approach risks catastrophic war. Sustainable peace requires diplomatic engagement, regional dialogue, and confidence-building measures to prevent further escalation.
UPSC Relevance:
- GS Paper II (International Relations): U.S.-Iran relations, West Asian conflicts, nuclear diplomacy.
- GS Paper III (Security): Implications of Iran’s nuclear program, regional instability.
Essay/Current Affairs: Geopolitical tensions, role of diplomacy vs. militarization
Q. The recent move to arm civilians in Assam raises serious questions about the role of the state in maintaining law and order. Critically examine the constitutional, legal, and security implications of arming civilian groups under the pretext of self-defence.
Introduction
The Assam government’s recent decision to issue arms licenses to “eligible” members of indigenous communities in border and vulnerable areas has triggered intense debate. While framed as a self-defence measure against cross-border threats, this move challenges established principles of law enforcement, undermines constitutional responsibility, and risks social instability in a region already vulnerable to insurgency and communal tensions.
Body
1. Constitutional and Legal Context
- Monopoly on Force: In a democratic state, the monopoly over violence rests with the state, not private groups (Article 355: duty of the Union to protect every state against internal disturbance).
- Arms Act, 1959 & Arms Rules, 2016: Provide a regulated framework for individual gun licensing, emphasizing self-defence, stringent background checks, and restrictions on collective licensing.
- Violation of Rule of Law: Delegating coercive power to civilians blurs lines between state and non-state actors, violating Article 14 (equality before law) and the principle of uniform application of legal authority.
2. Security Risks in Assam’s Context
- Historical Instability: Assam has been affected by insurgent groups like ULFA (Independent), border disputes, and inter-ethnic tensions. Civilian armament could exacerbate existing conflicts.
- Proliferation and Misuse: Weapon diversion into grey markets is a well-documented concern. Licensing large groups, particularly in porous border areas, increases this risk.
- Precedent – Salwa Judum: The Supreme Court in Nandini Sundar v. State of Chhattisgarh (2011) ruled the arming of civilians unconstitutional after it led to grave human rights violations and erosion of state legitimacy.
- Administrative Challenges: Monitoring, renewal, and recovery of arms from widely spread civilian holders is nearly impossible in conflict-prone and remote terrains.
3. Ethical and Social Implications
- Encouragement of Vigilantism: Arming one group could lead to inter-community rivalries, especially in border districts with mixed ethnic populations.
- Undermining Law Enforcement: It may signal state abdication of duty, lowering public trust in institutions like police and paramilitary forces.
Way Forward
- Strengthen Police Presence: Increase recruitment and deployment in vulnerable areas. Enhance community policing models like those practiced in Meghalaya and Kerala.
- Border Management: Use technological surveillance, joint operations with BSF, and better fencing infrastructure to reduce illegal infiltration and smuggling.
- Promote Social Cohesion: Focus on development, inter-community dialogues, and grievance redressal in border areas rather than militarizing society.
- Reform Gun Licensing Policy: Tighten checks on eligibility, with transparent review boards and digital tracking of weapons using the NDAL (National Database of Arms Licenses).
- Uphold Judicial Oversight: All such measures should be legally vetted to ensure compliance with constitutional principles and Supreme Court precedents.
Conclusion
Arming civilians as a response to perceived threats represents a regressive approach to internal security and governance. It not only undermines the rule of law but also risks inflaming existing tensions in Assam. A robust state does not outsource violence but strengthens its institutions to protect citizens impartially and effectively. Assam must reconsider this policy in favour of a lawful and democratic path to security.
Syllabus Mapping – GS Paper 2 & 3
- GS2: Government policies and interventions; Role of civil services in governance; Issues and challenges in federal structure
- GS3: Internal Security – role of non-state actors, border management, insurgency
Previous Year Mains Question Linkages
- GS3 (2023): Discuss internal security threats arising from border areas.
- GS2 (2022): Critically examine the role of pressure groups in deepening democracy.
- GS3 (2020): Discuss the potential threats of cyber attacks and the security framework to prevent them.
- GS2 (2016): Examine the scope of fundamental rights in light of state security concerns.