Introduction
The successful launch of the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite in 2025 from Sriharikota marks a significant milestone in India-U.S. space collaboration. NISAR is the world’s first dual-frequency radar imaging satellite, jointly developed by ISRO and NASA, using L-band (NASA) and S-band (ISRO) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems. Designed with a mission life of five years, it aims to monitor the Earth’s dynamic surface with high resolution, all-weather, day-and-night capability.

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  • Scientific and Technological Significance
    • NISAR employs SweepSAR technology for wide-area coverage with high resolution (242 km swath), capable of detecting subtle Earth surface changes like ground deformation, vegetation shifts, and ice sheet movements.
    • It is the first satellite to use a 12-meter deployable mesh radar reflector, enhancing data acquisition and spatial accuracy.
  • Disaster Management and Climate Monitoring
    • Enables real-time monitoring and early warning for earthquakes, floods, landslides, and cyclones.
    • Helps in mapping soil moisture, surface water, and storm patterns, which is critical for drought preparedness and flood forecasting.
    • Can significantly strengthen India’s National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and IMD’s forecasting systems through consistent and reliable Earth observation data.
  • Environmental and Agricultural Applications
    • Supports farm-level decision-making by mapping crop areas, estimating yield, and detecting disease patterns.
    • Enhances data for carbon stock estimation, forest management, and wetland monitoring, aligned with India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.
  • Strategic and Global Collaborations
    • The mission enhances India’s geospatial intelligence for coastal monitoring, border surveillance, and maritime domain awareness.
    • Strengthens India’s leadership in space diplomacy, especially in the Indo-Pacific, aligning with frameworks like QUAD and the India-U.S. Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET).
  • Domestic Technological Indigenization
    • Use of ISRO’s I3K satellite bus reflects growing self-reliance in complex mission integration.
    • Aligns with national missions like Atmanirbhar Bharat and Digital Earth India, aiming to create a robust domestic satellite infrastructure for strategic autonomy.

Way Forward

  • Data Democratization: Ensure open-access platforms for NISAR data to enable usage by academia, startups, and local governments.
  • Institutional Integration: Integrate NISAR data with platforms like Bhuvan, FASAL, and PM Gati Shakti to enhance policy formulation and implementation.
  • Capacity Building: Invest in GIS and remote sensing training for disaster responders, farmers, and urban planners at state and district levels.
  • Mission Continuity: Plan successors to NISAR with enhanced temporal and spatial resolution for persistent observation.

Conclusion

The NISAR mission symbolizes a paradigm shift in Earth observation capabilities with its precision, coverage, and dual-frequency SAR technology. By empowering India with actionable insights for disaster management, environmental stewardship, and strategic awareness, NISAR not only boosts scientific capacity but also reinforces India’s role as a responsible and technologically capable global actor. Its success must be leveraged through multi-sectoral integration and global partnerships to fulfill developmental and strategic goals.

Syllabus Link: Science and Technology – Developments and their applications in everyday life; Achievements of Indians in science & technology; Indigenization of technology and development of new technology; Disaster management.

PYQ Link:

  • GS Paper III 2020: “How is S&T helping in disaster management?”
  • GS Paper III 2021: “How can India improve its Earth observation capacity?”

Sources :

  • ISRO Official Release (April 2025): www.isro.gov.in
  • NASA Earth Science Division Updates (2025)
  • Ministry of Earth Sciences Annual Report 2024-25
  • National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) 2019
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB), April 2025
  • India-US iCET Fact Sheet, MEA 2024

Introduction

The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission, set for launch on July 30, 2025, marks a landmark Indo-U.S. collaboration in Earth observation. NISAR will be the first satellite globally to use dual-frequency SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) — combining NASA’s L-band and ISRO’s S-band radars — to provide high-resolution, all-weather, day-night data. Mounted on India’s GSLV-F16, it showcases India’s growing capability in space technology and strategic partnerships.

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  1. Technological Breakthroughs:
  • Dual-frequency SAR capability allows the detection of minute changes in Earth’s surface (millimetre-level precision), making it superior to conventional optical satellites.
  • Uses NASA’s 12-metre mesh reflector antenna and ISRO’s I3K satellite bus, showcasing indigenous integration capability.
  • Employs SweepSAR technology, enabling wide swathe coverage of 242 km with high spatial resolution.
  1. Key Applications in India’s Context:
  • Disaster Management:
    • Real-time monitoring of earthquakes, landslides, cyclones, and floods.
    • Enables quick-response strategies for National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and State agencies.
  • Climate Change and Environmental Monitoring:
    • Tracks glacial retreat, ice-sheet movement, and sea-level rise.
    • Supports India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and SDG-13 (Climate Action).
  • Agriculture and Water Resource Management:
    • Monitors crop biomass, soil moisture, and surface water bodies, aiding PM Fasal Bima Yojana and Jal Shakti Abhiyan.
  • Infrastructure Monitoring:
    • Detects ground subsidence due to mining or urban expansion, critical for infrastructure resilience.
  1. Strategic and Scientific Relevance:
  • Places India among a select group of nations with advanced radar imaging satellites.
  • Strengthens India’s role in global science diplomacy and space data-sharing regimes.
  • Enhances ISRO’s contribution to international climate models and UN-SPIDER disaster monitoring network.

Way Forward

  • Operationalising NISAR data-sharing protocols across Ministries (Agriculture, Jal Shakti, NDMA, IMD).
  • Establishing a dedicated Earth Observation Task Force to ensure actionable insights for planners and administrators.
  • Strengthening public-private partnerships for AI-driven analytics on satellite datasets for commercial and research purposes.
  • Enhance capacity building at State level through ISRO’s outreach centres to utilize NISAR data for local governance.

Conclusion

The NISAR mission is a cornerstone in India’s space journey — fusing global collaboration with indigenous execution. It reinforces India’s strategic goals in disaster preparedness, agriculture planning, and climate monitoring, aligning with the larger vision of Viksit Bharat @2047. As Earth observation becomes central to sustainable governance, NISAR promises to be a game-changer for India and the world.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III – Science and Technology
    • Developments and applications of space technology
    • Disaster management and early warning systems
    • Environmental monitoring and climate change

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2022: Discuss the applications of remote sensing in mapping natural resources in India.
  • 2020: What do you understand by the term ‘data security’? Discuss India’s stand on data privacy in the backdrop of recent global developments.
  • 2016: Discuss India’s achievements in the field of space science and technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?

Sources:

  • ISRO official press release on NISAR mission (July 2025)
  • The Hindu Bureau, July 28, 2025
  • NASA-JPL Mission Brief, 2024
  • Ministry of Science & Technology Annual Report, 2024
  • PIB: ISRO-NASA Earth Observation Collaboration Brief

Introduction

The rise of Digital India has been remarkable — with the digital economy contributing 11.74% to India’s GDP in 2022–23 (MeitY Report, 2023), powered by over 31,000 tech start-ups. However, this digital transformation also brings challenges of market concentration, platform gatekeeping, and abuse of dominant positions by global tech companies. The recent Competition Commission of India (CCI) probe into Google’s discriminatory practices against Indian gaming firms has reignited the debate on the urgency of strong antitrust regulation in the digital domain.

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  1. Understanding Antitrust in the Digital Economy:
  • Antitrust laws aim to preserve market competition, protect consumers, and curb monopolies.
  • India’s key legal framework is the Competition Act, 2002, enforced by the CCI, which has been increasingly active in scrutinizing Big Tech behaviour.
  1. Monopoly Concerns in India’s Digital Ecosystem:
  • Google’s dominance: Android has ~95% market share in India’s mobile OS space, giving it disproportionate control over app discovery, payments, and advertising.
  • High commissions (15–30%) on Play Store transactions have eroded start-up margins.
  • In the 2022–2024 Real Money Gaming (RMG) Pilot, Google allowed only Daily Fantasy Sports (DFS) and rummy, excluding other formats — creating entry barriers and market distortion.
  • Indian gaming firms claim over 68% of downloads earlier came via Google Ads — now restricted to select categories, shrinking visibility for excluded apps.
  1. Economic and Innovation Costs of Market Distortion:
  • Stifled competition leads to:
    • Reduced consumer choice and service quality.
    • Disincentivised innovation among Indian start-ups.
    • Over-reliance on foreign platforms for revenue and reach.
  • Global parallels: Antitrust scholars in the U.S. have shown reduced IPOs and startup exits due to tech monopolisation.
  1. India’s Institutional Response:
  • CCI’s proactive action: Prevented Google from:
    • Restricting developers from using third-party payment systems.
    • Blocking communication between developers and users.
  • Government initiatives: Draft Digital Competition Bill (2023), recommendations by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Finance (2022) to curb anti-competitive digital conduct.

Way Forward

  • Enact the Digital Competition Law: Provide a robust legal backing for ex-ante regulation of platform giants.
  • Democratise digital access: Ensure neutrality in platform monetisation, app listing, and ad policies.
  • Strengthen CCI’s tech expertise: Equip it with digital economy specialists and AI-based tools for quicker enforcement.
  • Promote indigenous platforms: Incentivise Bharat-centric tech ecosystems and reduce over-dependence on a few global players.
  • Facilitate international cooperation: Collaborate with EU and US regulators to align global antitrust responses.

Conclusion

As India aspires for a $1 trillion digital economy by 2030, it cannot afford to let a few gatekeepers dictate access, pricing, or innovation. Antitrust regulations are not anti-business; rather, they are pro-competition and pro-innovation. Just as the Sherman Act in 1890 laid the groundwork for fair economic systems, India today must uphold economic justice in the digital age. The battle against monopolistic practices is critical to building a level playing field for Indian start-ups, and ensuring that Digital India remains inclusive, competitive, and resilient.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III – Economy:
  • Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth.
  • Science and Technology developments and their applications in everyday life.
  • Awareness in IT and Computer Applications.
  • GS Paper II – Governance:
  • Role of regulatory bodies (CCI), e-governance, and policies for startup ecosystems.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2023 (GS III): Do you think India needs a digital competition law to regulate tech platforms? Examine in light of recent global and national developments.
  • 2022 (GS III): What are the challenges faced by startups in India? How can the policy environment be made more supportive?
  • 2020 (GS III): Explain how the growing dominance of digital platforms is impacting market competition. Discuss the role of regulators.

Sources:

  • Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) Digital Economy Report, 2023
  • Competition Commission of India (CCI) Orders, 2022–2024
  • Parliamentary Standing Committee on Finance Report on Digital Competition, 2022
  • FICCI & NASSCOM Industry Reports, 2023
  • Google Play Store and Indian Gaming Market Trends – Inc42, 2024

Introduction

The exponential growth of Generative AI (GenAI), powered by Large Language Models (LLMs), has revolutionised content creation, knowledge retrieval, and automation. However, these models often rely on vast datasets, including copyrighted works, for training — raising contentious questions around copyright infringement and the application of the fair use doctrine. Recent U.S. court judgments in the Anthropic and Meta cases have initiated judicial exploration into this legal grey area, setting global precedents with implications for India as well.

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  1. Understanding Fair Use in the GenAI Context
  • Under U.S. copyright law, fair use is assessed using four factors:
    1. Purpose and character of use – including whether it is transformative.
    2. Nature of the work – factual vs. fictional.
    3. Amount and substantiality used.
    4. Effect on the potential market or value of the copyrighted work.
  • GenAI training is argued to be transformative as it enables machines to generate new expressions rather than replicate originals.
  1. Case Law Developments
  • Anthropic Case (2024):
    • Court ruled in favour of Anthropic, recognising the transformative nature of using books for AI training.
    • However, use of illegally sourced materials was not granted fair use protection.
  • Meta Case (2024):
    • Meta won summary judgment due to lack of market harm evidence from plaintiffs.
    • Acknowledged that mass AI outputs could lead to market dilution, but insufficient proof was provided.
  1. Comparative Analysis
  • Both cases favoured fair use for legally obtained data used in GenAI training.
  • Courts diverged on market impact interpretations:
    • Meta court warned of indirect substitution and dilution.
    • Anthropic court rejected the idea of training machines leading to unfair competition.
  • Both judgments distinguish training AI from redistribution or commercial reproduction, indicating the importance of intent and use.
  1. Broader Implications
  • As GenAI becomes integral to R&D, education, and content industries, legal clarity on data usage is essential.
  • In India, Section 52 of the Copyright Act, 1957 provides certain fair dealing exceptions, but lacks clarity on AI training use cases.
  • The 2023 Parliamentary Standing Committee on AI and Emerging Tech recommended a balanced copyright framework to avoid stifling innovation.

Way Forward

  • Develop clear copyright guidelines specific to AI training under Indian law, aligning with global best practices.
  • Promote licensing frameworks (e.g., extended collective licensing) to allow lawful access to copyrighted data.
  • Encourage self-regulation by AI firms through transparency in training datasets.
  • Create mechanisms for copyright holders to opt-in or opt-out of training datasets.
  • Promote bilateral/multilateral cooperation to harmonise fair use principles in cross-border digital contexts.

Conclusion

The fair use doctrine in GenAI contexts is at the frontier of intellectual property jurisprudence. While U.S. courts are increasingly favouring transformative uses for training AI, they also underline the need for legal sourcing and market impact assessments. India must urgently modernise its copyright law to protect creators while nurturing responsible AI innovation — ensuring a balanced, future-ready regulatory regime.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III – Science and Technology
    • Developments in Artificial Intelligence
    • Issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
  • GS Paper II – Governance
    • Legal frameworks and institutions
    • E-governance, transparency, and accountability

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2023 (GS III): Discuss the challenges posed by emerging technologies like AI to data privacy and IPR frameworks.
  • 2020 (GS III): What are the challenges to digital governance in India? How can regulation of Big Tech ensure balance between innovation and compliance?
  • 2019 (GS III): Examine the impact of IPR protection on research and innovation.

Sources:

  • U.S. District Court Judgments: Anthropic PBC and Meta Platforms Inc., 2024
  • U.S. Copyright Act – Section 107 (Fair Use Doctrine)
  • India’s Copyright Act, 1957 – Section 52 (Fair Dealing)
  • NITI Aayog Report on Responsible AI (2021)
  • Parliamentary Standing Committee Report on AI and Emerging Tech, 2023
  • National Law School of India University (NLSIU) Expert Commentary – 2024

Introduction

India is set to launch the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite on July 30, 2025, aboard the GSLV Mk-II from Sriharikota. NISAR is the world’s first dual-frequency radar imaging satellite dedicated to Earth observation. A joint mission of ISRO and NASA, NISAR will provide high-resolution, near real-time data to support disaster management, agriculture, forestry, and infrastructure monitoring — marking a milestone in international scientific collaboration and India’s space-based societal applications.

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  1. Scientific Significance of NISAR
  • NISAR combines L-band (1.257 GHz) from NASA and S-band (3.2 GHz) from ISRO in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) format.
  • Operates from a sun-synchronous polar orbit at 747 km altitude with a 12-day revisit cycle.
  • Features a 12-m mesh antenna with a 240-km swath width and 3–10 m spatial resolution, offering unparalleled Earth coverage.
  • Provides centimetre-scale vertical accuracy — critical for monitoring ground deformation, subsidence, and landslides.
  1. Applications for India
  • Agriculture: Maps active/inactive cropland, monitors soil moisture, supports crop insurance schemes like PMFBY.
  • Forestry: Generates annual woody biomass maps (1-hectare resolution), aiding India’s carbon stock estimation and NDC goals.
  • Disaster Management:
    • Tracks flood extent, landslides, and earthquakes.
    • Provides damage proxy maps within 5 hours post-disaster to aid agencies like NDMA and NDRF.
  • Infrastructure Monitoring: Tracks deformation in dams, levees, roads, supporting urban resilience programs (e.g., Smart Cities Mission).
  • Climate and Earth System Studies: Monitors glacier retreat, coastal erosion, and ecosystem dynamics.
  1. Technological Innovation
  • SweepSAR design enables ultra-wide scanning without compromising resolution.
  • Employs polarimetric SAR for differentiating surface materials like snow, soil, crops.
  • Global coverage with focus on India via S-band SAR, tailored to local priorities.
  1. Collaborative Development
  • ISRO Contributions: I-3K satellite bus, S-band radar, solar power system, data distribution via NRSC.
  • NASA Contributions: L-band radar, 12-m antenna, carbon-composite boom, payload data systems.
  • Built jointly at JPL (NASA) and URSC (ISRO), with launch services provided by ISRO.
  • Data from NASA’s Near Earth Network and ISRO’s ground stations (Shadnagar, Antarctica).

Way Forward

  • Open data policy to democratise access for researchers, government agencies, and global users.
  • Integrate NISAR data with Digital India Land Records Modernization, Soil Health Mission, and Gati Shakti infrastructure plan.
  • Strengthen capacity-building programs to train users in radar data interpretation and application.
  • Foster further international cooperation in climate resilience, disaster forecasting, and precision agriculture.

Conclusion

NISAR is a landmark Indo-US scientific mission, blending cutting-edge radar imaging with development goals. By empowering India with real-time, high-accuracy Earth observation data, it will significantly bolster disaster resilience, sustainable agriculture, and environmental monitoring. NISAR exemplifies how space diplomacy and technology convergence can serve humanity’s pressing needs — positioning India as a global leader in space-based solutions for societal progress.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III – Science and Technology
    • Developments in space technology
    • Applications of satellites in governance and disaster management
  • GS Paper II – International Relations
    • India’s bilateral and multilateral cooperation in science and technology

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2022 (GS III): How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are its striking applications?
  • 2021 (GS III): Discuss the importance of satellite data in water resource management.
  • 2016 (GS III): India’s achievements in space technology have been a game-changer. Evaluate.

Sources:

  • ISRO Official Brief on NISAR (2025)
  • NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Updates, 2025
  • Ministry of Earth Sciences Annual Report, 2024
  • NDMA Disaster Management Guidelines
  • Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare – Remote Sensing Applications
  • Department of Space – Earth Observation Capabilities Report, 2024

Introduction

One of the greatest unsolved puzzles in modern physics is why the universe is dominated by matter when the Big Bang should have created equal amounts of matter and antimatter. This imbalance underpins the very existence of stars, galaxies, and life itself. In a historic breakthrough (July 2025), scientists at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) observed CP violation in the decay of baryons, a discovery that may help explain this asymmetry.

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  1. Background: What is CP Violation?
  • CP (Charge-Parity) symmetry implies that matter and antimatter should behave identically under mirror reflection and charge reversal.
  • CP violation occurs when this symmetry is broken — it is a key requirement for explaining why matter outlasted antimatter.
  • Until now, CP violation had been observed only in mesons (quark-antiquark particles), but not in baryons (three-quark particles like protons and neutrons), which make up most visible matter.
  1. The Experiment: LHC and LHCb Detector
  • Conducted at the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) using the LHCb detector.
  • Data was gathered over several years from billions of proton-proton collisions, producing b0 baryons and their antimatter counterparts.
  • Sophisticated algorithms and machine learning helped isolate rare decays:
    • b0 → proton + kaon⁻ + pion⁺ + pion⁻
    • Compared with the decay of b0-bar (antibaryon) into their antimatter equivalents.
  1. Key Discovery and Significance
  • Measured CP asymmetry: ~2.45%, with a statistical significance of 5.2σ, crossing the 5-sigma threshold required for a scientific discovery.
  • First-ever observation of CP violation in baryon decays.
  • Important implications:
    • Opens up new avenues to study baryonic matter-antimatter asymmetry.
    • May hint at new, unknown forces or particles beyond the Standard Model.
    • Reinforces the idea that subtle differences in particle behaviour shaped the universe’s evolution.

Way Forward

  • Explore CP violation in other baryons: Study heavier particles and rare decays.
  • Enhanced LHC upgrades (HL-LHC): Increase precision of future measurements.
  • Theoretical advancements: Develop models beyond the Standard Model to account for the observed asymmetry.
  • Global collaboration: Encourage participation of Indian institutions in high-energy physics experiments (e.g., INO, CERN partnerships).
  • Public outreach and STEM education: Use such discoveries to foster scientific literacy and inspire innovation in frontier science.

Conclusion

The discovery of CP violation in baryon decays is a milestone in particle physics. Though the observed asymmetry is insufficient to explain the entire matter-antimatter imbalance, it is a crucial step toward understanding why anything exists at all. By exploring nature’s deepest symmetries and their violations, humanity continues to unravel the origins and evolution of the cosmos. The discovery not only adds a new layer to fundamental physics but also underscores the role of global science collaborations in answering age-old existential questions.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • GS III – 2020: What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?
  • GS III – 2018: What is the basic principle behind nuclear fusion? Why are fusion reactors not being used yet to produce electricity?
  • GS III – 2015: Scientific research in Indian universities is declining. Do you agree? Justify your answer with suitable examples.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper III:
    • Science and Technology – Recent developments and their applications
    • Awareness in the field of Particle Physics
    • Contributions of Indian scientists and institutions

Sources Used:

  • The Hindu article by Vasudevan Mukunth (2025)
  • CERN – LHCb Experiment Reports
  • Indian Institute of Science commentary
  • IUPAP and European Physical Society publications on CP violation
  • Ministry of Science & Technology, Govt. of India – India’s participation in CERN

Introduction

The 7th BRICS Media and Think Tank Forum held in Rio de Janeiro (July 2025) reaffirmed the urgency of establishing equitable access to Artificial Intelligence (AI) for the Global South. With AI’s transformative potential increasingly monopolized by a few Global North actors, the forum emphasized South-South cooperation, regulatory autonomy, and inclusive governance frameworks. For emerging economies like India, this presents both a diplomatic opportunity and a technological imperative.

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  1. Key Takeaways from the BRICS Forum
  • Over 250 delegates from 36 countries participated.
  • Major concern: AI concentration in select countries creates dependencies, digital divides, and sovereignty threats.
  • Call for joint R&D, open-source development, and shared governance standards among Global South nations.
  • Launch of the Global South Joint Communication Partnership Program to amplify southern narratives and resist digital colonialism.
  1. Strategic Proposals for Equitable AI
  • Multilingual and multimodal AI corpus:
    • Aim: Train AI on diverse cultural, civilizational, and linguistic inputs.
    • Enables BRICS and Global South media to generate locally relevant content and counter narrative asymmetry.
  • AI as a ‘moral partner’:
    • Governance must prioritize ethics, pluralism, and development, not just market efficiency.
  • Regulatory autonomy:
    • While promoting multilateral AI governance, countries must retain domestic digital sovereignty.
  1. India’s Role and Initiatives
  • India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) model (Aadhaar, UPI, CoWIN) demonstrates inclusive tech deployment.
  • MyGov consultations and Bhashini (National Language Translation Mission) align with the multilingual corpus vision.
  • India has proposed a Global AI Partnership for Development (GAIPD) at various global forums.
  • As G20 President (2023) and upcoming host of the AI Impact Summit (2026), India is positioned to build consensus among diverse stakeholders.

Way Forward

  • Establish a BRICS-AI Consortium: Pool computing infrastructure, data resources, and multilingual datasets across member states.
  • Promote Open Source AI Models: Develop collaborative, transparent AI tools rooted in ethical and inclusive values.
  • Push for UN-led AI Framework: India and BRICS should lobby for a UN Charter on Ethical AI, with Global South leadership.
  • Capacity Building: Set up regional AI Research Centers, offer scholarships and cloud credits through a ‘Global South AI Fund’.
  • Narrative Sovereignty: Train AI models to promote cultural diversity and counter digital hegemony through media cooperation.

Conclusion

The BRICS forum rightly situates AI within the broader context of digital sovereignty, equity, and ethical governance. For the Global South, AI must be a tool of empowerment, not dependency. India, with its experience in digital inclusion and multilateral diplomacy, can lead the formation of a decentralized, democratic AI future — one that speaks in many languages, reflects diverse cultures, and serves humanity, not hegemony.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • GS II – 2021: “Discuss India’s evolving role in shaping global order in a multipolar world.”
  • GS III – 2023: “What is the significance of Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) in ensuring financial inclusion in India?”
  • GS III – 2020: “What are the challenges and opportunities in regulating emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence?”
  • GS II – 2016: “Effectiveness of regional groupings in promoting cooperation and development.”

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II:
    • International institutions and groupings
    • South-South cooperation and India’s foreign policy
  • GS Paper III:
    • Science and Technology – developments and applications
    • Inclusive growth and emerging technologies
    • Awareness in IT, AI, and digital ethics

Sources Used:

  • The Hindu Bureau report on BRICS Forum (2025)
  • Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) – Bhashini, Digital India
  • G20 India 2023 outcomes on tech governance
  • UNESCO and UNDP guidelines on ethical AI
  • BRICS Joint Communication Partnership Program (2025)

Introduction:

India’s entry into human spaceflight missions marks a pivotal moment in its space journey. The recent participation of Wing Commander Shubhanshu Shukla in a NASA-Axiom mission to the International Space Station (ISS), arranged through a ₹500+ crore investment by ISRO, reflects India’s intent to integrate global best practices into its own Gaganyaan Mission, scheduled for launch in 2027. This cooperation exemplifies India’s strategic use of space diplomacy, capacity-building, and technology exposure.

Body:

  1. Significance of NASA-Axiom-ISRO Collaboration:
  • Technical Exposure: Mr. Shukla was trained in advanced spacecraft systems, emergency protocols, microgravity adaptation, and manual docking operations—critical areas for mission success, as per Axiom’s post-mission reports and ISRO’s June 2025 statement.
  • Strategic Training Access: Exposure to Japanese and European modules of the ISS—after being trained in Japan and Germany—broadens India’s astronaut proficiency in international environments.
  • Cost-effective Capability Building: ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan confirmed that the Axiom mission cost less than domestic full-scale training, saving time and investment while improving human capital.
  • Mission Readiness: The mission acts as a simulation for Gaganyaan, which has a total project cost of ₹20,000 crore. Practical learning from actual ISS conditions boosts mission preparedness.
  1. Strategic and Diplomatic Gains:
  • Technology Access Despite ITAR: Concerns about restrictions under International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) proved unfounded, highlighting successful negotiation and trust.
  • Boost to India’s Space Diplomacy: Participation in multinational missions strengthens India’s space partnerships and global standing.
  • Soft Power and Inspiration: Astronauts like Shukla and Prasanth Nair serve as public icons, vital for science popularization and attracting youth to STEM fields.
  1. Gaps and Challenges:
  • Opaque Communication by ISRO: ISRO’s piecemeal dissemination of information undermines public engagement. Despite massive investments, transparency and citizen outreach remain weak.
  • Limited Domestic Ecosystem: India still lacks a mature private spaceflight training infrastructure, necessitating foreign dependence.

Way Forward:

  • Transparent Public Communication: ISRO should proactively release updates, mission details, and astronaut interviews to build public excitement.
  • Invest in Indigenous Training Facilities: Set up national astronaut training centers modeled after ESA and NASA programs to reduce foreign dependence.
  • Strengthen Global Ties: Enhance cooperation with JAXA, ESA, Roscosmos, and SpaceX/Blue Origin for advanced exposure and joint missions.
  • Leverage for Space Diplomacy: Use platforms like BRICS, SCO, and IORA to establish India as a leader in peaceful space exploration.

Conclusion:

The NASA-Axiom-ISRO partnership is more than a training mission—it’s a strategic stepping stone in India’s space journey. As the country prepares for Gaganyaan 2027, such collaborations not only enhance technological capabilities but also expand India’s global footprint in the final frontier. However, this must be backed by transparent communication, domestic infrastructure, and public engagement to harness the full benefits of India’s human spaceflight ambitions.

UPSC Syllabus Linkage & Previous Year Questions:

GS Paper III – Science and Technology

  • Achievements of Indians in science & technology
  • Indigenization of technology and developing new technology
  • Awareness in the fields of space

Relevant PYQs:

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2023: “How is India protecting its space assets? Discuss the challenges and strategies.”
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2021: “What is India’s plan to have its own space station? How will it benefit the space program?”
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2019: “Discuss India’s achievements in space science and technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?”

 Introduction:

Research and Development (R&D) refers to creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge and devise new applications. While India aspires to become a global innovation leader, it spends only 0.64% of GDP on R&D (Economic Survey 2022–23), well below the global average of 2.3%. In this context, the recently approved ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme, operationalised through the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), is a bold step to stimulate private participation in research.

Body:

  1. Key Features of the RDI Scheme and ANRF:
  • ₹1-lakh crore fund with low-interest loans to the private sector for R&D.
  • The ANRF acts as a single-window clearance system, under the Ministry of Science and Technology.
  • 70% of ANRF funding is expected from the private sector — a reversal of current trends where the government accounts for 70% of total R&D spending.
  1. Systemic Bottlenecks and Concerns:
  • a. Overly Conservative Eligibility (TRL-4 Restriction): Only projects with a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) ≥ 4 are eligible. This excludes early-stage, high-risk innovations where support is most needed.
  • b. Absence of Military-Industrial Complex Synergy: Globally, cutting-edge R&D (e.g., Internet, GPS) emerged from military-backed research. India lacks such a coordinated tech-innovation-military push.
  • c. Weak Private Sector Appetite: Private firms contribute just 37% to India’s R&D expenditure (UNESCO, 2021), compared to 75% in China and 65% in the U.S. The high-risk nature of basic research deters private investments.
  • d. Brain Drain: Over 1.3 lakh Indian scientists and researchers migrated between 2017–2022 (MEA, Lok Sabha), citing lack of opportunities and funding.
  • e. Weak Innovation-to-Manufacturing Pipeline: India lacks deep-tech manufacturing capabilities, hampering the commercialization of scientific ideas.

Way Forward:

  • 1. Incentivize Early-Stage Research: Funding must not be restricted to TRL-4+. Instead, offer seed grants and tax credits for TRL 1–3 research.
  • 2. Strengthen University-Industry Linkages: Foster innovation clusters around IITs, NITs, IISc to enable technology transfer and commercialization.
  • 3. Military-Driven Innovation: Build synergies between Defence R&D Organisation (DRDO) and civilian sectors, similar to the DARPA model in the U.S.
  • 4. Boost Human Capital Retention: Offer tenure-track positions, global fellowships, and repatriation schemes for Indian researchers abroad.
  • 5. Expand Skilled Manufacturing Base: Integrate Skill India and Start-Up India with R&D ecosystems to ensure ideas reach the market.

Conclusion:

While the RDI scheme and ANRF are commendable initiatives, budgetary provisions alone cannot fix India’s chronic R&D inertia. Structural reforms, early-stage risk tolerance, synergy with industry and defence, and nurturing indigenous talent must accompany fiscal incentives. Science thrives not in silos but through sustained, systemic support.

Sources:

  • Economic Survey 2022–23
  • UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2021)
  • Ministry of Science & Technology (Press Release, 2024)
  • Lok Sabha Q&A (Brain drain statistics, 2023)
  • NITI Aayog, R&D Roadmap for India (2022)

Introduction:

Critical materials such as rare earth elements (REEs), copper, lithium, and cobalt are indispensable for electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy, and high-tech manufacturing. With China controlling over 90% of global rare earth magnet exports (USGS 2023), India’s auto-component industry is facing disruptions, especially since no imports of rare earth magnets have occurred since April 2025, according to the Automotive Component Manufacturers Association (ACMA). This necessitates a comprehensive national strategy on critical materials.

Body:

  1. Significance of Critical Materials for India:
  • Electric Mobility Mission 2030 targets 30% EV penetration by 2030.
  • Rare earth magnets are vital in EV motors, wind turbines, defense, and telecom.
  • Copper is a key conductor in EV batteries, solar panels, and grid infrastructure.
  1. Current Challenges:
  • Import Dependence on China:
    • Over 85% of India’s rare earth magnet imports come from China (Ministry of Commerce, 2024).
    • Geopolitical tensions and Chinese export restrictions have halted supplies.
  • Absence of Domestic Refining Ecosystem:
    • Though India has some rare earth reserves (e.g., in Odisha and Kerala), refining and processing capabilities are limited.
  • Supply Chain Vulnerability:
    • EV production may face delays, leading to economic losses and missed decarbonization targets.
  1. Emerging Strategic Alternatives:
  • Australia Partnership:
    • India is in talks to secure early-stage rare earth and copper blocks in Australia.
    • Interest shown by both private firms and PSUs in copper mining projects.
  • Private Investment in Smelting:
    • Indian firms like Adani have made large investments in copper smelting, indicating industry readiness.

Way Forward:

  • Formulate a National Critical Materials Strategy:
    • On lines of the US Critical Minerals Strategy and EU Raw Materials Alliance, India must create a long-term blueprint.
  • Set Up Strategic Mineral Reserves:
    • Maintain stockpiles of rare earths and copper akin to strategic oil reserves.
  • Invest in Domestic Exploration & Processing:
    • Strengthen Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) and Atomic Minerals Directorate for indigenous mining and refining.
  • Diversify Import Partners:
    • Expand sourcing from Australia, Vietnam, and Africa to de-risk supply chains.
  • Incentivize Recycling and Urban Mining:
    • Promote extraction of rare earths from e-waste and used EV batteries through PLI schemes and R&D support.
  • Collaborate on Global Value Chains (GVCs):
    • Become part of international clean-tech and battery alliances.

Conclusion:

A secure supply of critical minerals is foundational for India’s energy transition, industrial growth, and strategic autonomy. The current rare earth crisis is a timely reminder for India to reduce dependence, diversify sources, and invest in long-term material security. A forward-looking, industry-integrated National Critical Materials Policy is no longer optional—it is essential for Atmanirbhar Bharat and climate leadership.

Syllabus Linkage (GS Paper III):

  • Indian Economy: Effects of liberalisation on the economy, changes in industrial policy.
  • Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways.
  • Science and Technology: Indigenization of technology and development of new technology.
  • Environment and Industry: Issues relating to electric vehicles, sustainable development.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS III): “What are the key challenges in the renewable energy sector in India? How can the country overcome these challenges?”
  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS III): “How does the cryogenic engine technology help India?”
  • UPSC Mains 2023 (GS III): “India’s battery storage capabilities and mineral security are essential for energy transition. Discuss.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of Mines, Government of India (2024)
  • ACMA Statement (June 2025)
  • USGS Rare Earth Data (2023)
  • Press Trust of India News Reports (2025)
  • Draft National Mineral Policy (Revised 2023)

Introduction:

Quantum technology—spanning quantum computing, communication, sensing, and cryptography—is set to redefine the future of science, industry, and national security. Recognizing its potential, the Andhra Pradesh Government recently launched the Amaravati Quantum Valley Declaration (AQVD), signaling a state-level strategic vision to transform Amaravati into a globally competitive quantum innovation hub.

Body:

  1. Significance of the AQVD Initiative:
  • Strategic Vision: AQVD lays out long-term goals in research, innovation, skill development, infrastructure, and global collaboration in quantum science.
  • Public-Private Collaboration: The declaration includes joint commitments by the AP Government and industry leaders like IBM, TCS, and L&T, ensuring multi-stakeholder investment and expertise.
  • Capacity Building: Proposes dedicated quantum research clusters, academic partnerships, and incubation facilities to nurture quantum start-ups and talent pipelines.
  • Regional Innovation Leadership: Positions Andhra Pradesh as a pioneer in decentralized technology governance, complementing India’s national quantum mission.
  1. National and Global Context:
  • India’s National Quantum Mission (NQM): Approved in April 2023 with a ₹6,000 crore outlay, the NQM aims to build quantum computers, quantum communication lines, and advanced manpower by 2031. AQVD aligns well with these goals.
  • Global Race in Quantum: The US, China, and EU are investing billions in quantum technologies. India needs state-level innovation ecosystems like Amaravati to compete globally and retain talent.
  • Talent Retention and Infrastructure Gaps: India faces a shortage of quantum physicists, engineers, and labs. AQVD can help reverse the brain drain by creating localized opportunities.

Way Forward:

  • Leverage National Quantum Mission Funding: Ensure AQVD aligns with NQM priorities to secure central assistance and scientific collaboration.
  • Establish Centers of Excellence (CoEs): Collaborate with institutions like IISER, IIT-Hyderabad, and ISRO for joint research and PhD programs in quantum computing and cryptography.
  • International Tie-ups: Facilitate MoUs with global quantum leaders (Canada’s D-Wave, IBM Q, Google Quantum AI) for knowledge exchange and technology transfer.
  • Inclusive Tech Skilling: Introduce quantum education modules in state universities, ITIs, and engineering colleges to build a large base of quantum-literate professionals.
  • Incentivize Startups and R&D: Provide grants, tax breaks, and lab access for quantum-based startups via state innovation councils.

Conclusion:

The Amaravati Quantum Valley Declaration marks a visionary step in federalizing India’s technology innovation landscape. It not only supports India’s broader scientific goals under the National Quantum Mission, but also strengthens sub-national technological competitiveness, boosts employment, and places India on the global quantum map. Such region-specific frameworks can be replicated across other states to accelerate India’s emergence as a knowledge and innovation superpower.

Syllabus Linkage (GS Paper III):

  • Science and Technology: Recent developments in science and technology and their applications and effects in everyday life.
  • Indian Economy and Infrastructure: Investment models, innovation, and technology infrastructure.
  • Governance: Role of state governments and public-private partnerships in policy implementation.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2020: “What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?”
  • 2021: “How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? Explain.”
  • 2023: “India’s success in science and technology depends on its ability to create an innovation ecosystem. Discuss.”

Sources:

  • Government of Andhra Pradesh – IT&E Department Press Release (2025)
  • National Quantum Mission – Cabinet Approval (April 2023)
  • Ministry of Science & Technology – Annual Report 2024–25
  • IBM Research and Quantum India Strategy Paper

Introduction:

One of the defining features of human evolution is the exceptionally large brain relative to body size. Scientists have long debated how such a metabolically expensive organ evolved. A new international study (2024) involving researchers from CSIR-CCMB, India, USA, and China, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, provides strong genetic evidence linking diet quality with brain size evolution across primates, offering fresh insights into human evolutionary biology.

Body:

  1. Key Findings of the Study:
  • Analysed 8,000 genes from 50 primate genomes.
  • Developed a Diet Quality Index (DQI) based on fruit, seed, and animal protein intake.
  • Found a positive correlation between diet quality, brain size, and evolutionary changes in specific genes.
  1. Genetic and Evolutionary Insights:
  • Brain consumes ~20% of body’s energy but weighs only 2% in humans.
  • Genes like ELOVL6 and EEF1A2 involved in lipid metabolism and neurodevelopment were found to be under evolutionary selection.
  • These genes are also linked to autism, microcephaly, showing an evolutionary trade-off.
  1. Mechanism Explained:
  • Better diet = more energy → supported evolution of neurogenesis-related genes.
  • These genes enabled larger brains, which in turn allowed primates to access better diets — forming an evolutionary feedback loop.
  1. Broader Implications:
  • Explains the role of meat, fruit, and fire-use in Homo sapiens’ cognitive evolution.
  • Highlights how dietary ecology shapes genetic and cognitive traits.
  • Reinforces theories of coevolution of ecological behavior and cognition.

Way Forward:

  •  Multidisciplinary Research: Encourage further studies integrating archaeology, anthropology, and genomics to explore similar dietary-genetic links in early Homo species.
  •  Focus on Modern Health: Insights on lipid metabolism genes can help combat modern neurodevelopmental disorders.
  • Curriculum Inclusion: NEP 2020 calls for promotion of evolutionary science and interdisciplinary research in education.
  •  Policy for Nutritional Security: Evolutionary findings reinforce the importance of balanced nutrition for child brain development today.

Conclusion:

The recent CCMB-led study affirms that diet was not merely a lifestyle choice but a core evolutionary force shaping primate — and human — cognitive evolution. The genetic linkages between energy metabolism and brain development demonstrate how ecology, biology, and behavior co-evolved in our lineage. Understanding these connections is not just about our past, but also informs nutrition, health, and neurobiology in the present.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper I: Indian Heritage and Culture – Evolution of human life
  • GS Paper III: Science & Technology – Developments and their applications, Biotechnology
  • Relevant UPSC PYQs:
    • GS I (2020): “How far do you agree that the behavior of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to humanizing landscape?”
    • GS III (2021): “How does scientific knowledge and advancement impact society and evolution?”

Sources:

  • Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B (2024)
  • CSIR-CCMB, Govt. of India
  • Ministry of Science & Technology, GoI
  • Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) – Nutritional Sciences

Introduction

India took a historic step in its human spaceflight journey with Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla’s participation in the Axiom-4 (Ax-4) mission to the International Space Station (ISS) on June 25, 2025. This is India’s first orbital human spaceflight since 1984, and a prelude to ISRO’s ambitious Gaganyaan mission, expected by 2027. While Shukla’s seat cost ₹548 crore, this investment marks a shift in India’s engagement with commercial space missions, private-sector partnerships, and space diplomacy.

Body

  1. Strategic and Scientific Significance
  • Bridging the 41-Year Gap
    Mr. Shukla becomes the first Indian on the ISS and only the second Indian in space, breaking a long hiatus since Rakesh Sharma‘s Soviet mission in 1984.
  • Precursor to Gaganyaan
    His participation offers hands-on exposure to microgravity, space medicine, international crew protocols, and orbital docking, crucial for ISRO’s ₹20,200 crore Gaganyaan mission.
  • Scientific Output
    The Ax-4 mission includes 8 experiments from ISRO and 60 others globally, spanning biotechnology, physics, and material sciences, positioning India as a contributor to international space science.
  1. Commercial and Diplomatic Dimensions
  • Privatisation of Human Spaceflight
    This mission marks India’s first paid astronaut seat on a commercial space mission (Axiom Space and SpaceX). It reflects India’s intent to enter the commercial crew services market eventually.
  • Strengthening India-U.S. Space Relations
    NASA and private U.S. firms like Blue Origin have shown interest in Gaganyaan-based tech, deepening strategic U.S.-India space ties amid uncertain geopolitical dynamics and budgetary reshuffles in the U.S.
  • ISS Decommissioning by 2030
    India’s entry into the ISS consortium is time-sensitive. The current mission provides a critical window of opportunity before the platform is dismantled.
  1. Challenges and Criticisms
  • High Cost and Limited Transparency
    With ₹548 crore spent on a single seat, questions arise about cost-effectiveness and the Department of Space’s lack of public justification.
  • Uncertain International Access
    The Elon Musk–Trump tensions, proposed U.S. budget cuts for 2026, and shifting NASA priorities threaten future joint missions.
  • Private Sector Lag in India
    Despite reforms like IN-SPACe, India’s space startups still lack scale and autonomy. Public-private synergy is essential to avoid missing commercial opportunities.

Way Forward

  • Transparent Communication
    ISRO must clearly articulate the scientific, strategic, and diplomatic outcomes of this mission to gain public trust and support.
  • Accelerate Gaganyaan with Global Tech Adoption
    Lessons from Ax-4 must inform astronaut training, life-support systems, and emergency protocols in Gaganyaan.
  • Boost Private Sector Participation
    Extend fiscal and technical support to Indian startups to become contractors and collaborators in missions, similar to Axiom’s model.

Conclusion

Group Captain Shukla’s mission symbolizes more than national pride—it represents India’s entry into the era of commercial human spaceflight and global space diplomacy. But with growing public expectations and rising international stakes, India must combine transparency, investment, and innovation to secure a sustainable position in the future of human space exploration.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper III – Science & Technology
    • Indigenization of technology
    • Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology
    • Developments and applications of S&T in everyday life

Linked Previous Year Questions

  • UPSC GS III 2020: “Discuss India’s achievements in space science and technology and how it has helped socio-economic development.”
  • UPSC GS III 2016: “Discuss India’s achievements in the field of space science and technology. What is its significance for India?”

Introduction

India’s foray into human space exploration took a major leap with Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla becoming the first Indian astronaut to board the International Space Station (ISS) through the Axiom-4 (Ax-4) mission, launched on June 19, 2025, from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. This marks India’s second human presence in space after Rakesh Sharma’s historic flight in 1984, and symbolizes the transition of ISRO’s space programme from satellite launches to human spaceflight capability.

Body

  1. Significance of the Axiom-4 Mission for India
  • Revival of Human Spaceflight After Four Decades
    India rejoins the elite club of spacefaring nations after 41 years. Unlike Rakesh Sharma’s Soviet-led mission, Ax-4 is India’s first commercial astronaut presence in an international collaboration.
  • International Collaboration and Capacity Building
    The mission is a SpaceX-NASA-Axiom Space venture, including astronauts from India, USA, Poland, and Hungary, strengthening India’s international space diplomacy.
  • Foundation for Gaganyaan
    This mission offers practical exposure in space operations, microgravity science, and international docking procedures—critical for ISRO’s indigenous Gaganyaan mission, which is expected by 2026–27.
  1. Scientific Contributions
  • Microgravity Research
    Group Captain Shukla will conduct seven microgravity experiments proposed by Indian research institutions. This includes work in biotechnology, materials science, and space medicine.
  • ISRO-NASA Joint Experiments
    Includes five joint science investigations and two in-orbit STEM demonstrations, promoting technology sharing and collaborative science.
  • Global Representation
    Ax-4 includes 60 experiments from 31 countries, integrating India into the global scientific research network aboard the ISS.
  1. Strategic and Technological Implications
  • Soft Power and Strategic Prestige
    Participation enhances India’s soft power, projecting an image of scientific advancement and technological self-reliance.
  • Commercial Space Opportunity
    This sets the stage for commercial astronaut missions, private partnerships, and future investment in India’s emerging space startups (e.g., Skyroot, Agnikul).
  • STEM Outreach and Inspiration
    Symbolically powerful for national pride and STEM education. Group Captain Shukla’s message, “Let us start India’s human space programme”, reflects a call to national involvement.

Way Forward

  • Gaganyaan Execution with Lessons from Ax-4
    Integrate crew safety protocols, mission planning, and emergency response from Ax-4 into the upcoming Gaganyaan programme.
  • Enhancing Human-Rated Infrastructure
    Invest in crew training centres, space medicine, and life support systems within ISRO.
  • Global Partnerships
    Deepen collaborations with NASA, ESA, and JAXA for shared missions, Lunar Gateway programmes, and beyond-LEO exploration.

Conclusion

The Ax-4 mission marks a transformational moment in India’s space history, placing it at the forefront of human spaceflight diplomacy and science. As India prepares for indigenous missions, Ax-4 offers a unique testbed to calibrate technology, inspire a new generation, and elevate India’s profile in global space governance.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology; developments and applications of science and technology and their effects in everyday life.

Link with Previous UPSC Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS III): “Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS III): “What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?”

Introduction

India’s high-tech sectors, including space and biotechnology, have witnessed increasing private sector participation due to recent policy liberalization. However, as stated by Minister Jitendra Singh, the Indian private sector remains in a “developing stage” with limited capacity to independently manufacture strategic technologies such as space launch vehicles or biotech innovations. This reflects systemic and historical challenges in building private acumen in cutting-edge science.

Body

  1. Current Status and Context
  • The space sector opened to private players only 4–5 years ago through initiatives like IN-SPACe and liberalised FDI policy.
  • Despite this, the recent ₹511 crore SSLV manufacturing deal was awarded to HAL, a public sector enterprise, rather than private firms like Agnikul Cosmos or Skyroot Aerospace.
  • In biotechnology, over ₹7,000 crore in start-up equity exists, but no company has yet entered public markets, reflecting long incubation cycles and low investor confidence.
  1. Key Challenges for Private Sector Growth
  • Late policy entry: Historical government dominance in strategic sectors delayed capacity building in the private domain.
  • Capital and risk constraints: Deep tech ventures need long-term patient capital, but venture funding is limited.
  • Technology access and IP ownership: Lack of Transfer of Technology (ToT) mechanisms and limited R&D-industry linkage hampers innovation.
  • Procurement bias and ecosystem gaps: Despite reforms, PSUs often outbid start-ups in government procurement due to scale and experience.
  • Regulatory and market barriers: Complex licensing norms, absence of testing facilities, and no clear exit strategy for biotech start-ups hinder scaling up.

Way Forward

  • Strengthen ToT mechanisms: Facilitate fair and transparent technology handover from ISRO, CSIR, BIRAC to private firms with IP-sharing frameworks.
  • Long-term capital ecosystem: Create deep-tech venture funds, government-backed guarantees, and market incentives.
  • PPP innovation hubs: Establish joint incubation centres between DRDO/ISRO and start-ups to co-develop products.
  • Ease market access: Reform public procurement norms to include start-up-friendly bidding criteria.
  • R&D-commercialization bridges: Institutionalize scientist-founder exchange programs and university spin-offs.

Conclusion

India’s private sector in high-tech fields is young but promising. While policy reforms have opened doors, institutional, financial, and regulatory support must now be provided to enable indigenisation and global competitiveness. Building a resilient private ecosystem in space and biotech is not only a commercial priority but also a strategic necessity for India’s techno-sovereignty.

Syllabus Linkage – GS Paper III

  • Indian Economy: Development and employment
  • Achievements of Indians in science & technology
  • Indigenization of technology and developing new technology
  • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

  • UPSC 2022 (GS III): “What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India?” (Indirectly related to sectoral bottlenecks and private innovation)
  • UPSC 2020 (GS III): “What are the challenges in commercialization of technology in India? Discuss.”
  • UPSC 2019 (GS III): “Science and technology are growing but Indian research and development is lagging behind. Suggest measures for enhanced R&D.”

Introduction

Quantum Communication is an emerging frontier in secure information transmission, leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics to enable Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). Unlike classical encryption methods, QKD ensures virtually unbreakable security by using photons to transmit cryptographic keys, making any interception attempt immediately detectable. As per Professor Bhaskar Kanseri of IIT-Delhi, India may become technologically capable of satellite-based quantum communication within the next 5 years, provided adequate investment, talent, and ecosystem support.

Body

  1. How QKD Works

QKD allows two parties to generate a shared secret key using streams of photons. The most secure method of QKD involves quantum entanglement, where two particles are correlated such that a change in one is reflected in the other, irrespective of the distance. Attempted interception disturbs the system, triggering alerts to the communicating parties.

  • Advantages over Classical Encryption:
    • Immune to brute-force attacks
    • Intrusion detection is built-in
    • Ideal for national security, defence, and sensitive data transmission
  1. Significance of Satellite-Based QKD for India
  • Overcomes fibre optic limits: While QKD can be done over fibre networks, signal loss increases with distance (>100 km). Satellite-based QKD enables long-distance communication without degradation.
  • Strategic edge: China has already achieved milestones in quantum satellite communication (Micius satellite in 2016). India must catch up to ensure technological sovereignty in a critical domain.
  • Defence and Cybersecurity: India’s growing digital infrastructure and national security networks (e.g., armed forces, nuclear command) can benefit from tamper-proof communication systems.
  1. Challenges to Implementation
  • Atmospheric interference: Free-space QKD is affected by pollution, turbulence, and beam divergence, causing errors.
  • Technical complexity: Requires precise beam alignment, photon control, and low-noise detection systems.
  • Resource limitations: Current efforts like those at IIT-Delhi are proof-of-concept with limited manpower and funding.
  • Lack of private ecosystem: India lacks quantum communication-oriented startups and deep-tech collaborations.

Way Forward

  1. National Quantum Mission (2023): Implement the ₹6,000 crore allocation to build indigenous quantum infrastructure, with specific focus on satellite QKD demonstration.
  2. Establish National Quantum Labs: Set up dedicated research hubs across IITs, IISc, and DRDO labs, with international collaboration and open-source hardware access.
  3. Foster Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encourage startups and quantum-focused ventures through Design-Linked Incentives (DLI) and venture capital support.
  4. Build Quantum Satellites: Collaborate with ISRO and defence institutions to launch dedicated quantum payloads, as demonstrated by China and the EU.
  5. Skill Development: Introduce quantum physics curricula at the university level and fund multidisciplinary doctoral research.

Conclusion

Achieving satellite-based quantum communication will mark a paradigm shift in India’s cybersecurity landscape, enabling hack-proof, long-distance data transmission. With global powers like China and the U.S. advancing rapidly, India must accelerate its quantum roadmap to avoid strategic lag. Timely policy, funding, and scientific collaboration will be crucial to realising this goal by 2030, safeguarding India’s digital and defence sovereignty in the quantum era.

Link to UPSC Syllabus & PYQs

  • GS Paper III – Science & Technology: “Awareness in the fields of IT, Computers, Cybersecurity, and Quantum Technology.”
  • Relevant PYQs:
    • Q. What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC 2019)
    • Q. What are the challenges in securing sensitive digital communications in India? (UPSC 2020 – GS III)
    • Q. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of space science and technology. (UPSC 2016)

Introduction

The rise of large language models (LLMs) and generative AI systems has created an innovation boom, but also triggered ethical, legal, and economic concerns—particularly in content-dependent industries like journalism. AI models rely heavily on web data, including news articles, editorials, and analyses produced by media professionals. However, this content is often scraped without permission or compensation, leading to calls for legal protection for news publishers against what is increasingly seen as digital content appropriation.

Body

  1. Ethical and Legal Challenges
  • Uncompensated Use of Intellectual Property (IP):
    Generative AI firms train models using vast datasets from the Internet, including paywalled and copyrighted journalism, without seeking consent or offering remuneration, violating the spirit—if not always the letter—of copyright law.
  • Collapse of Traditional Revenue Models:
    The earlier waves of digitisation already eroded ad revenues and subscriptions for news media. Now, AI-generated overviews and summaries replace visits to original content, further diminishing traffic and monetisation avenues.
  • Asymmetric Power Relations with Big Tech:
    Just as search engines and social platforms once profited disproportionately from news content, AI firms risk doing the same. With billions in market valuation, these firms are in a position to extract value without equitable return to content creators.
  • Fair Use Misinterpretation:
    AI developers often defend model training under “fair use”, but legal scholars and creators argue that this doctrine does not apply to large-scale, systematic reproduction of content for commercial use.
  1. Recent Developments in India
  • In 2023, the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) formed a committee on copyright and AI, a critical step in evaluating how Indian law must evolve to safeguard creative industries from unchecked AI scraping.

Way Forward

  1. Legal Reform:
    Amend the Copyright Act, 1957 to include explicit provisions on AI training data rights and mandatory licensing for content usage by AI firms.
  2. Fair Revenue Sharing Models:
    Adopt global best practices like the EU’s Article 15 and Australia’s News Media Bargaining Code, which mandate tech platforms to compensate publishers.
  3. Data Transparency Mandates:
    Require AI companies to disclose datasets used for training, ensuring consent-based access to proprietary or paywalled content.
  4. Platform Neutrality Enforcement:
    Prevent platform monopolies from stifling content visibility through walled gardens. Encourage interoperability and discoverability for journalistic sources.
  5. Public Support for Journalism:
    Support public interest journalism through grants, subsidies, and tax breaks, especially for regional and vernacular media impacted by AI disruption.

Conclusion

The advent of AI cannot come at the cost of journalism’s survival. News organisations are not merely data sources—they are pillars of democratic accountability, public awareness, and institutional trust. As AI systems reshape the digital information economy, equitable frameworks must be built to ensure that publishers are compensated, their rights are protected, and the integrity of content ecosystems is preserved.

Link to UPSC Syllabus & PYQs

  • GS Paper III – UPSC Syllabus Topics:“Awareness in the fields of IT, Computers, Intellectual Property Rights.”
    “Issues relating to Media and Social Networking Sites.”
  • Relevant Previous Year Questions:
    • Q. What are the ethical concerns surrounding Artificial Intelligence in modern society? (2020)
    • Q. What are the challenges to journalistic freedom in the era of digital technology? (2021)
    • Q. Discuss the implications of digital media on democracy in India. (2020)

Introduction

In the 21st-century geopolitical landscape, Critical and Emerging Technologies (CETs) like semiconductors, Artificial Intelligence (AI), biotechnology, quantum computing, and space have become the bedrock of national security, economic resilience, and global influence. A new Critical and Emerging Technologies Index, based on public and commercial data, ranks India below France and above Russia, with a score of 15.2, far behind the U.S. and China, who lead across all five sectors. This gap reflects systemic challenges in funding, infrastructure, policy coherence, and talent development.

Body

  1. Key Areas of Concern
  • Semiconductors (Weight: 35%)
    India lags in chip design, fabrication capacity, and access to high-end equipment and materials. Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan continue to dominate this sector. India ranks low due to lack of foundries, low R&D expenditure (just ~0.7% of GDP), and talent shortage.
  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Weight: 25%)
    The U.S. leads with massive private sector investment, while China leverages large datasets and state-backed research. India’s AI ecosystem suffers from fragmented efforts, low computing infrastructure, and brain drain.
  • Biotechnology (Weight: 20%)
    Though India demonstrated capability during COVID-19 (e.g., Covaxin), it lags in genetic engineering, vaccine R&D, and biopharmaceutical innovation due to limited public-private synergy and inadequate venture capital.
  • Space Technology (Weight: 15%)
    India ranks 7th globally, with achievements like Chandrayaan and PSLV, but lacks in defence applications, commercial satellite services, and deep-space missions compared to the U.S., China, and Russia.
  • Quantum Technology (Weight: 5%)
    Despite the National Quantum Mission (Rs 6,000 crore approved in 2023), India trails in core tech development, quantum communication, and workforce availability.

Way Forward

  1. Boost Public R&D Spending: Raise public and private R&D to at least 2% of GDP, prioritising semiconductors, biotech, and quantum.
  2. Create National Tech Missions: Like Semicon India Programme (2022), launch mission-mode projects in AI, biotech, and space, with convergence of academia, industry, and government.
  3. Strengthen Talent Pipeline: Introduce specialized university courses, offer research grants for doctoral studies, and create global partnerships to bring diaspora talent back.
  4. Encourage Indigenous Ecosystems: Expand PLI schemes to cover biotech and AI sectors; support domestic chip design firms via design-linked incentives.
  5. Bilateral Tech Diplomacy: Leverage platforms like Quad (QUAD Critical and Emerging Technologies Working Group), India-U.S. Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) to access high-end know-how and secure tech partnerships.
  6. Promote Startups and VC funding: Establish technology-focused venture capital funds, incentivize deep-tech startups, and de-risk private investment.

Conclusion

India’s lag in critical technologies is not merely a technological gap but a strategic vulnerability. To emerge as a techno-sovereign power, India must adopt a cohesive national vision backed by funding, policy stability, talent development, and international collaboration. Only then can India close the innovation divide and lead in shaping the future of global technology.

Link with UPSC Syllabus & PYQs

  • GS Paper III Topics: “Science and Technology—developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.”
    “Indigenization of technology and developing new technology.”
  • Previous Year Questions:
    • Q. What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC 2019)
    • Q. How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are the striking changes in agriculture triggered off by science-based technologies? (UPSC 2020)
    • Q. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. (UPSC 2016)

Introduction

The Axiom-4 mission, a commercial crewed spaceflight to the International Space Station (ISS) led by Axiom Space (USA) and involving ISRO astronaut-designate Shubhanshu Shukla, was postponed four times in June 2025 before being rescheduled for June 19, 2025. The delays, caused by technical issues and space station constraints, reflect the high-risk, high-precision nature of modern space cooperation.

Body

  1. Overview of Axiom-4 Mission
  • Crewed commercial mission to ISS using SpaceX’s Falcon 9 and Dragon capsule.
  • Included India’s astronaut, Shubhanshu Shukla, trained under ISRO’s ₹500+ crore human spaceflight program.
  • Meant to deepen India–U.S. strategic ties and provide operational exposure ahead of Gaganyaan.
  1. Reasons for Delay
  • LOX leak in Falcon 9 engine detected during pre-launch testing:
    • Liquid Oxygen (LOX), a cryogenic oxidizer, leaked due to component failure.
    • LOX leaks are invisible and dangerous, requiring detailed inspections and repairs.
  • ISS module pressure anomaly:
    • NASA and Roscosmos flagged pressure issues in an ISS service module.
    • Postponement allowed additional safety evaluations.
  • Docking slot availability & weather:
    • Multiple international agencies coordinate ISS usage.
    • Mission required specific launch windows to ensure minimal fuel use and safe docking.
  1. Implications for India
  • Operational Exposure Delayed:
    • India’s first astronaut in orbit since Rakesh Sharma (1984) delayed.
    • Slower progress in space diplomacy and skill acquisition.
  • ISRO’s Gaganyaan timeline may need recalibration, as international collaboration experience was part of preparatory phase.
  • International collaboration risks:
    • Highlights India’s dependence on foreign platforms for human spaceflight training.

Way Forward

  1. Develop Indigenous Redundancy:
    • Accelerate Gaganyaan infrastructure to reduce dependency on commercial partners.
    • Invest in cryogenic engine safety and diagnostics using DRDO and ISRO synergy.
  2. Expand Global Partnerships:
    • Balance U.S. collaboration with others like ESA, JAXA, CNES to ensure continuity in training and launches.
  3. Cryogenic Technology R&D:
    • Focus on LOX handling systems, seal technology, and autonomous leak detection to apply to Indian launchers.
  4. Contingency Planning in Mission Design:
    • Include alternate windows, backup launch systems, and on-ground crew readiness in all future joint programs.

Conclusion

While the Axiom-4 delay is a reminder of spaceflight’s intricacies, it also reinforces the importance of technical reliability, transparent collaboration, and self-reliant capability building. India must use this experience to sharpen its technological edge and project itself as a credible human spaceflight power in the evolving global space order.

Subject in UPSC Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III: Science and Technology
    • Achievements of Indians in science & technology
    • Indigenization of technology and development of new technology
    • Space technology and international collaboration

Relevant PYQs for Practice:

  • UPSC GS-III, 2023: “Discuss India’s achievements in the field of space science and technology. How has the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development?”
  • UPSC GS-III, 2021: “What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?”

Introduction

Scientific research thrives on autonomy, precision, and access to high-quality resources. However, rigid procurement policies like the Government e-Marketplace (GEM)—mandated since 2020—have constrained these principles by enforcing lowest-cost purchases, often at the expense of quality and reliability. While the GEM initiative, under the Ministry of Commerce, was designed to promote transparency and “Make in India,” it inadvertently impeded scientific innovation and reproducibility.

Body

  1. Impact of GEM on Scientific Institutions
  • Mandatory Procurement Norms: Since 2020, all central government-funded scientific institutions were required to procure lab equipment and materials through GEM, which prioritizes lowest price bids over scientific suitability.
  • Quality vs Cost Trade-offs: Common materials like sodium chloride, which vary in purity grades critical to experimental outcomes, must often be sourced from vendors unfamiliar with research standards.
  • Impacts on Reproducibility: Experiments dependent on specific chemicals, molecules, or tools become non-reproducible if exact materials are unavailable—violating a key principle of scientific integrity.
  1. Systemic Constraints
  • Lack of Indian Industrial Base: India still lacks domestic manufacturers of precision instruments, high-purity chemicals, and custom research apparatus.
  • Waste of Resources: Inability to procure correct inputs results in abandoned or substandard experiments, leading to net loss of time, funding, and credibility.
  1. Recent Government Reforms
  • In June 2025, the government exempted scientific institutions from strict GEM-based procurement, allowing independent sourcing. Scientists called this move “revolutionary” and a step toward ease of doing research.
  • This marks a return to pre-2020 norms where institutions had freedom to choose vendors based on research-specific criteria.

Way Forward

  1. Institutional Autonomy: Restore complete purchasing autonomy for all research councils and labs, especially those under DST, DBT, CSIR, and DRDO.
  2. Create a Scientific Vendor Registry: Maintain a central database of pre-qualified vendors with expertise in research-grade products.
  3. Decentralized Monitoring: Set up in-house procurement committees with technical experts to vet quality and cost-efficiency locally.
  4. Investment in R&D Manufacturing: Promote indigenous production of high-precision scientific equipment via schemes like PLI for R&D Instruments.
  5. Regular Feedback Loops: Institutionalize feedback from scientists into procurement policy design, ensuring policies are research-informed.

Conclusion

India’s scientific ecosystem, to be globally competitive, needs more than just funding—it demands freedom, flexibility, and precision tools. The reversal of the rigid GEM policy is a recognition that science cannot be governed with bureaucratic uniformity. As Jawaharlal Nehru envisioned, “Science must be cultivated with freedom”, for only an unfettered scientific environment can drive innovation, self-reliance, and global leadership in technology.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II – Governance: Government policies and interventions for development
  • GS Paper III – Science and Technology: Developments and their applications and effects; Achievements of Indians in science and technology; Indigenization of technology

Link with Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS III): What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2022 (GS II): “Policy contradictions between Indian economic growth and environmental sustainability.”

Introduction

The IMF’s recent report highlights that AI’s economic benefits could outweigh its environmental costs if powered by renewable energy. However, AI’s expansion increases electricity demand, mineral mining, and water usage, posing sustainability challenges. For India, balancing AI growth with its 2070 net-zero target requires a strategic shift towards renewables.

Environmental Implications of AI Expansion

  1. Energy Demand:
    • AI data centers consume massive electricity; the IMF warns that unchecked expansion in the U.S. could raise electricity prices by 9%, increasing emissions if reliant on fossil fuels.
    • India’s AI infrastructure, like the IndiaAI Mission, must avoid straining the national energy grid.
  2. Resource Intensity:
    • AI depends on rare minerals (lithium, cobalt) for hardware, escalating mining-related ecological damage.
    • Water-intensive cooling systems and e-waste from electronics manufacturing further stress the environment.

India’s Renewable Energy Strategy for AI

  1. Solar and Wind Integration:
    • Data centers’ large footprints (e.g., solar panels on rooftops) make them ideal for captive renewable projects. Indian firms like Adani and Tata are already investing in green energy for data hubs.
  2. Nuclear and Modular Reactors:
    • Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) can provide clean, stable power to emerging AI clusters without carbon emissions.
  3. Policy Synergy:
    • The Paris AI Action Summit emphasized renewables for AI. India’s Solar Alliance and PLI scheme for electronics can align AI growth with sustainability.

Balancing AI and Sustainability

  • Regulatory Frameworks: Mandate renewable energy use for data centers (e.g., Karnataka’s solar policy for IT parks).
  • Circular Economy: Promote recycling in electronics manufacturing to curb e-waste.
  • Global Cooperation: Leverage international partnerships (e.g., ISA) for tech-transfer in green AI infrastructure.

Conclusion

India can harness AI’s potential without derailing its climate goals by prioritizing renewables, incentivizing green tech, and enforcing sustainable industrial practices. A proactive approach will ensure AI drives economic growth while upholding environmental stewardship.

Linkage with Syllabus:

  • GS-III (Indian Economy): Science & Technology, Infrastructure (Energy), Environmental Impact Assessment
  • GS-III (Environment): Sustainable Development, Renewable Energy, Climate Change
  • GS-III (Science & Tech): AI and its Applications

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:

  • *”Explain the role of renewable energy in ensuring energy security in India.” (GS-III, 2022)*
  • *”Discuss the potential of AI in governance while addressing ethical and environmental concerns.” (GS-III, 2023)*

Introduction

India’s rural-urban digital divide persists due to infrastructural gaps, where terrestrial internet remains unreliable. Satellite-based internet services like Starlink, operated by SpaceX, promise high-speed connectivity in remote areas. However, their entry into India is mired in legal, regulatory, and security challenges, raising questions about balancing innovation with national interests.

Regulatory Challenges

  1. Licensing & Spectrum Allocation:
    • Starlink requires a VSAT licence under the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885, and must comply with the Telecommunications Act, 2023, which governs satellite spectrum allocation.
    • TRAI’s role in pricing and fair competition adds complexity.
  2. Space & Security Coordination:
    • IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) regulates orbital slots to avoid conflicts with ISRO’s assets.
    • Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) mandates strict data localization and real-time surveillance under the IT Act, 2000 and DPDP Act, 2023.
  3. Foreign Ownership Concerns:
    • Security agencies scrutinize foreign-operated satellite networks over fears of data misuse and espionage, delaying clearances.

Security Concerns

  • Illegal Usage Risks: Reports of Starlink devices being misused for unlawful activities have heightened scrutiny.
  • Encryption & Interception: Ensuring compliance with lawful access requirements while maintaining user privacy remains contentious.

Balancing Innovation & Sovereignty

  • Transparent Regulatory Framework: India needs a predictable licensing process to attract investment while safeguarding security.
  • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Subsidizing rural access can make satellite internet affordable, as seen in BharatNet.
  • Indigenous Alternatives: Encouraging ISRO’s OneWeb collaboration or Reliance Jio’s satellite venture can reduce dependency on foreign players.

Conclusion

Starlink’s case exemplifies the tension between technological disruption and regulatory control. For India to harness satellite internet’s potential, a balanced approach—promoting innovation while ensuring data sovereignty and equitable access—is crucial. A revised Spacecom Policy and streamlined security protocols could pave the way for inclusive digital growth.

Link to Syllabus:

  • GS-III (Science & Technology): Awareness in IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, and issues relating to intellectual property rights.
  • GS-III (Internal Security): Cybersecurity, data protection, and challenges to internal security through communication networks.
  • GS-II (Governance): Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors, regulatory frameworks.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:

  • 2023: Discuss the potential of satellite communication in bridging India’s digital divide. What are the challenges in its implementation?
  • 2021: Examine the role of emerging technologies in India’s socio-economic development while addressing security concerns.
  • 2019: How can India leverage digital infrastructure to ensure inclusive growth?

 

 

Introduction

The IndiaAI Compute Mission, under the Ministry of Electronics and IT, seeks to build sovereign AI infrastructure by empanelling private providers and subsidizing compute access. While this stimulates short-term demand, concerns persist about market distortions, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and long-term sustainability.

Merits of the Current Approach

  1. Demand Stimulation – Subsidies (up to 40%) for priority sectors (healthcare, education) boost domestic AI adoption.
  2. Preventing Cartelization – Continuous empanelment allows new entrants, fostering competition.
  3. Sovereign Infrastructure – Reduces reliance on foreign cloud providers, aligning with Atmanirbhar Bharat.

Challenges & Criticisms

  1. Lowest-Bid Tendering Risks – Vendors undercut prices (by ~89%), compromising service quality and R&D investments (Example: Yotta’s low Indian demand for H100 chips).
  2. Bureaucratic Hurdles – Startups face stringent eligibility criteria (e.g., ₹50L-200L revenue, DPIIT recognition), stifling grassroots innovation (Contrast: DeepSeek’s success due to minimal bureaucracy).
  3. Market Distortions – Subsidies may cap private demand at artificially low prices, deterring organic growth.
  4. Limited Scale – India’s ~19,000 GPUs are dwarfed by global investments (Meta’s $10B data centre), raising questions about competitiveness.

Way Forward

  1. Market-Driven Pricing – Shift from lowest-bid to quality-cum-cost bidding (as in defence procurement).
  2. Streamlined Access – Simplify subsidy approvals for startups via self-certification.
  3. Energy & Import Infrastructure – Scale power grids and ease GPU import norms to support growth.
  4. Adaptability – Allow flexibility to adopt emerging chips (beyond Nvidia) as AI evolves toward inference workloads.

Conclusion

While the IndiaAI Mission addresses immediate gaps, its success hinges on balancing state support with market freedom. A revised approach—focusing on innovation-friendly policies, infrastructure scalability, and global competitiveness—will better serve India’s AI aspirations.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS-III (Science & Technology) – Developments in AI; indigenization of technology.
  • GS-III (Economy) – Government policies for industrial growth; market distortions due to subsidies.
  • GS-II (Governance) – Challenges of bureaucratic processes in policy implementation.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:

  • 2023: “India’s AI strategy must balance innovation with equitable access.” Discuss.
  • 2021: Examine the role of government intervention in fostering self-reliance in critical technologies.
  • 2019: How far do subsidies distort market dynamics? Illustrate with examples.

 Introduction:
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) recently achieved a milestone by successfully testing a semicryogenic engine, a crucial step in enhancing indigenous launch vehicle capabilities. Additionally, the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission highlights India’s growing role in global space collaboration.

Significance of Semicryogenic Engine Development:

  1. Enhanced Payload Capacity: Semicryogenic engines (using refined kerosene and liquid oxygen) are more efficient than conventional engines, enabling heavier payloads in missions like GSLV and future reusable launch vehicles.
  2. Cost-Effectiveness: Kerosene-based propulsion reduces costs compared to cryogenic technology, aligning with ISRO’s cost-effective mission approach.
  3. Self-Reliance: Reduces dependency on foreign cryogenic technology, advancing India’s Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative in space.

Importance of NISAR Collaboration:

  1. Earth Observation: NISAR will monitor climate change, deforestation, and natural disasters, aiding sustainable development.
  2. Strategic Partnership: Strengthens Indo-US space ties, facilitating technology transfer and joint research.
  3. Global Leadership: Positions India as a key player in advanced space missions, complementing initiatives like Gaganyaan.

Conclusion:
These advancements underscore India’s growing prowess in space technology, fostering self-reliance and global cooperation, essential for future interplanetary and commercial missions.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper III (Science & Technology):
    • “Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology.”
    • “Space technology and its applications.”
  • GS Paper II (International Relations):
    • “Bilateral agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.”

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  1. 2023: “Discuss India’s achievements in the field of space science and technology. How has India contributed to international space missions?” (15 marks)
  2. 2021: “What is the significance of the Gaganyaan mission? Discuss the challenges and opportunities in India’s space sector.” (10 marks)
  3. 2019: “How does international collaboration benefit India’s space programme? Illustrate with examples.” (10 marks)

Key Takeaways for UPSC Aspirants:

  • Technology Focus: Semicryogenic engines, reusable launch vehicles, and cost-efficiency.
  • Strategic Collaborations: Importance of missions like NISAR for Earth observation and diplomacy.
  • Self-Reliance: Link to Atmanirbhar Bharat and reducing foreign dependency in space tech.

Introduction

The IndiaAI Mission, announced in 2024, aims to establish India as a global leader in Artificial Intelligence (AI) by fostering indigenous innovation. Recent initiatives, such as government support for Sarvam AI to develop a large language model (LLM) and the Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme (ECMS), highlight India’s strategic focus on self-reliance in AI infrastructure.

Significance of IndiaAI Mission

  1. Indigenous AI Development – The mission supports homegrown AI firms like Sarvam AI by providing access to GPU clusters (14,000 GPUs), reducing dependency on foreign tech giants.
  2. Multilingual & Voice-First AI – Sarvam’s LLM is designed for Indian languages, addressing linguistic diversity—a key requirement for inclusive AI adoption.
  3. AI for Public Good – The AI Kosh portal, hosting 350 datasets, enables startups and researchers to build AI solutions for governance, healthcare, and agriculture.

Role of ECMS & AI Kosh

  • ECMS promotes local manufacturing of electronic components, reducing import reliance and strengthening the AI hardware ecosystem.
  • AI Kosh acts as a centralized data repository, facilitating innovation while ensuring data sovereignty—critical for ethical AI deployment.

Global AI Leadership

India’s focus on AI safety (via the India AI Safety Institute) and population-scale AI deployment positions it as a responsible AI leader, balancing innovation with security.

Conclusion

By integrating policy support (ECMS), infrastructure (GPUs), and open data (AI Kosh), India can emerge as a competitive AI hub while ensuring equitable and secure AI growth.

 

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS-III: Science & Technology – “Developments in AI, IT, and their applications.”
  • GS-III: Indian Economy – “Government policies for technological self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat).”
  • GS-II: Governance – “E-governance and digital initiatives.”

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  1. “What are the main socio-ethical issues involved in AI development? Discuss India’s preparedness to harness AI for governance.” (UPSC Mains 2023, GS-III)
  2. “Examine the role of emerging technologies in achieving a $5 trillion economy.” (UPSC Mains 2022, GS-III)
  3. “Discuss the challenges and opportunities of AI in India’s development trajectory.” (UPSC Mains 2021, GS-III)

Analysis & Value Addition:

  • IndiaAI Mission aligns with the National Strategy for AI (2018) and Digital India.
  • Comparable global initiatives: China’s AI 2030 Plan, USA’s AI Executive Order (2023).
  • Ethical concerns: Data privacy (DPDP Act 2023), algorithmic bias.

Operational Framework of UPI

The Unified Payments Interface (UPI), managed by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), is a real-time payment system facilitating interbank transactions via mobile apps like GPay, PhonePe, and BHIM. It operates on an interoperable architecture, allowing users to link multiple bank accounts to a single mobile application. The NPCI acts as a central clearinghouse, encrypting transaction details (including PINs) and routing payments between banks.

Challenges in UPI System

  1. Single Point of Failure (SPOF): Since NPCI processes most UPI transactions, any downtime (e.g., due to excessive “check transaction” requests from banks) disrupts the entire system.
  2. Bank Outages: Individual banks frequently experience downtime, leading to payment declines.
  3. Revenue Model Issues: Banks incur costs (~₹0.80 per transaction) but cannot levy Merchant Discount Rates (MDR), reducing their incentive to maintain high uptime.
  4. Regulatory Constraints: The Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007 mandates that bulk-clearing entities like NPCI must be majority-owned by public sector banks, limiting private sector efficiency.

Measures to Improve Resilience

  1. Decentralization: Introduce multiple clearing nodes to reduce dependence on NPCI.
  2. Financial Incentives: Expand UPI incentive schemes for banks with high uptime.
  3. UPI Lite Expansion: Promote offline-capable UPI Lite for small transactions (₹2,000 limit).
  4. Service-Level Agreements (SLAs): Enforce stricter SLAs for banks, similar to Visa/Mastercard’s robust monitoring.

Conclusion

While UPI has revolutionized digital payments in India, infrastructure bottlenecks and financial disincentives hinder its reliability. A mix of policy reforms, technological upgrades, and financial incentives can enhance resilience and sustain India’s digital payment leadership.

Analysis & Value Addition

  • Relevance to Current Affairs: Recent UPI outages highlight systemic vulnerabilities.
  • Link to RBI Policies: RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI) and UPI transaction limits are key policy tools.
  • Global Comparison: Unlike Visa/Mastercard’s decentralized model, UPI’s centralized structure poses risks.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS-III: Indian Economy – Infrastructure (Digital Payments)
  • GS-III: Science & Technology – IT & Computers
  • GS-II: Government Policies & Interventions

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:

  • “What are the impediments in marketing the farm produce in India? What is the role of digital technology in helping farmers overcome these impediments?” (UPSC Mains 2022, GS-III)
  • “How is digital technology transforming governance in India? Discuss with examples.” (UPSC Mains 2021, GS-II)

Introduction:

India has historically been a cradle of creativity and innovation — from ancient metallurgy to Ayurveda, from astronomy to architectural marvels. As India aspires to become a $5 trillion economy, leveraging its vast reservoir of creativity, especially at the grassroots level, is essential. However, despite a high volume of creative outputs, the conversion of creativity into scalable innovation remains limited.

Body:

  1. Significance of the Creative Economy:
  • Globally, the creative economy contributed over $2 trillion in revenues and supported 50 million jobs in 2022.
  • India’s creative industry was valued at $30 billion in 2024, employing about 8% of the workforce, yet remains under-leveraged relative to its potential.
  1. Nature of Creativity and Innovation in India:
  • Creativity can be deliberate/emotional/cognitive or spontaneous, and endogenous/exogenous.
  • Grassroots creativity often falls into the deliberate and cognitive category, exemplified by innovations such as:
    • MittiCool clay refrigerator,
    • Pedal-operated washing machines, and
    • Amphibious bicycles.
  • However, these lack scaling mechanisms, IP protection, and investment.
  1. Bridging the Gap: Creativity → Innovation:
  • Creativity is idea generation, but innovation requires institutional support for:
    • Capital investment,
    • Design and prototyping,
    • IP protection,
    • Market readiness.
  • Organizations like GIAN (Grassroots Innovations Augmentation Network) have showcased scalable ideas, but national replication is still weak.
  1. Global Example – Antrodam Project (Indonesia):
  • Students created a bio-inspired flood protection system by mimicking ant nests and coral patterns.
  • Demonstrates the potential of nature-inspired grassroots solutions — a model India can learn from.

Way Forward:

  1. Ecosystem Creation:
  • Establish District Innovation Hubs, building on the “One District One Product” model.
  • Integrate creativity labs in schools and local institutions to identify early-stage ideas.
  1. Investment and Financial Support:
  • Reserve a dedicated innovation fund for grassroots ideas under schemes like Startup India and Atal Innovation Mission.
  • Channel CSR funds into local innovation incubation.
  1. IP and Legal Reform:
  • Simplify IP filing processes for grassroots inventors.
  • Create regional IP facilitation centers to support creators in local languages.
  1. Linking with National Missions:
  • Incorporate grassroots innovations into climate adaptation strategies, especially given India’s vulnerability to climate shocks.
  • Align with National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 to include creative thinking and problem-solving from an early age.

Conclusion:

India is not short of creativity, but the path from idea to impact needs nurturing. By fostering an ecosystem that connects grassroots creativity with formal innovation pipelines — backed by investments, legal protections, and institutional support — India can not only empower local communities but also emerge as a global leader in the creative economy. The time to act is now, with a disruptive yet inclusive innovation model rooted in local genius and scaled by national vision.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper III: “Science and Technology – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life”; “Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology.”
  • Also relevant to GS Paper II: “Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors.”

Previous Year Questions Linked:

  • “Science and Technology is a panacea for the growth and security of the nation.” (2020)
  • “How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are the striking changes in agriculture triggered off by science-based technologies?” (2019)

Introduction

Biotechnology is increasingly viewed as a transformative field, with far-reaching implications across various sectors, including healthcare, agriculture, defense, and manufacturing. As China accelerates its efforts to dominate this emerging technology, concerns are growing about its potential to weaponize biotechnology, particularly through genetically enhanced soldiers powered by artificial intelligence (AI). The U.S. National Security Commission on Emerging Biotechnology has raised alarms about China’s growing influence in this sector, urging swift action to ensure that the U.S. does not fall behind. This essay explores the challenges posed by China’s biotechnology advancements, the U.S.’s strategies to counter these challenges, and the broader implications for global markets, with a focus on India’s role.

Body

  1. China’s Strategic Priorities in Biotechnology
    For the past two decades, China has treated biotechnology as a strategic priority, steadily building its dominance in this field. The U.S. National Security Commission warns that China is likely to weaponize biotechnology, particularly in the defense sector. China’s Military-Civil Fusion strategy aims to create biotechnology-powered soldiers, a concept that blends AI with human biology to enhance military capabilities. This could lead to the creation of super-soldiers, giving China a strategic advantage in warfare that could render traditional drone warfare obsolete.
  2. Distortion of Global Biotechnology Markets
    The Commission highlights China’s tactics in distorting biotechnology markets. By subsidizing companies like the Beijing Genomics Institute (BGI) and MGI Tech, China undermines foreign competitors, particularly in the genomic sequencing market. The Chinese state’s involvement in financing these companies allows them to offer products at disproportionately low prices, disrupting global markets. This has led to challenges for countries like India, which has imposed anti-dumping duties on Chinese active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to protect its domestic manufacturing industry.
  3. U.S. Response: Recommendations by the National Security Commission
    The U.S. National Security Commission recommends several strategies to address the growing challenge posed by China. These include:
    • Investing in Biotechnology: The U.S. must dedicate significant resources, including a minimum of $15 billion over the next five years, to ramp up private-sector involvement in biotechnology.
    • Defending Intellectual Property (IP): The Commission stresses the importance of protecting U.S. biotechnology IP from Chinese corporate espionage, even if it means rejecting investments that might seem financially attractive.
    • Collaborating with Allies: The Commission emphasizes the need for the U.S. to build stronger partnerships with countries like India, which is focusing on cost-effective bio-manufacturing, particularly in vaccine production.
  4. Implications for Global Biotechnology Markets
    As China emerges as a dominant force in biotechnology, its influence is likely to shape global markets. The U.S. and its allies face the dual challenge of maintaining technological leadership while countering China’s state-sponsored market manipulation. For India, the situation presents both opportunities and risks. India’s focus on affordable biotechnology solutions, especially in vaccine production, could make it an important player in the global bio-manufacturing sector. However, the competition from Chinese firms, backed by state resources, might threaten the viability of domestic industries unless protective measures, such as anti-dumping duties, are strengthened.

Way Forward

To remain competitive, both the U.S. and its allies, including India, must prioritize biotechnology as a strategic sector. Governments should invest in research and development (R&D), encourage private-sector innovation, and enhance collaborations among countries that share common interests. India, in particular, should continue to focus on cost-effective biotechnology solutions while expanding its capabilities in genomic research and bio-manufacturing. Additionally, international agreements on data-sharing and intellectual property protection could help mitigate the impact of China’s state-driven market distortions.

Conclusion

The rapid advancements in biotechnology, particularly in defense, represent a new frontier in global power dynamics. As China continues to push ahead in this field, it is crucial for the U.S. and its allies, including India, to formulate strategies that not only defend against potential threats but also capitalize on the opportunities biotechnology presents. The next few years will be critical in determining whether China’s dominance in biotechnology will reshape the global balance of power or whether countries like the U.S. and India can rise to the challenge and secure their place at the forefront of this revolution.

Link to Previous Year’s Questions:

  1. GS Paper II – International Relations:
    “Discuss the implications of the growing China-Russia strategic partnership on global security, with a focus on technological advancements.”
  2. GS Paper III – Science and Technology:
    “Evaluate the role of artificial intelligence and biotechnology in modern warfare and their impact on international security dynamics.”

Introduction:

The global geopolitical landscape, particularly the trade tensions between the United States and China, has drawn attention to the importance of securing critical minerals, such as rare earth elements (REEs), which are essential for advanced manufacturing, electronics, and defense sectors. As China, the dominant supplier of REEs, has imposed export restrictions on several heavy REEs, countries like India, which are dependent on these elements for future industrialization, face both challenges and opportunities in securing a reliable and sustainable supply of these minerals.

Body:

India’s current imports of REEs are relatively small, and the impact of China’s restrictions has not been immediate or substantial, as the country is still in the early stages of developing industries that require these elements. As of 2023-24, only 2,270 tonnes of REEs were imported into India, primarily for research purposes and not for large-scale manufacturing. The semiconductor fabrication and defense manufacturing sectors, both of which would heavily rely on REEs, are still in nascent stages in India. Consequently, India has not faced major disruptions yet.

However, the over-reliance on Chinese suppliers for these critical materials has raised alarms within the Indian government. The National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM), launched as part of the Union government’s strategic focus on securing critical minerals, aims to address these vulnerabilities. The Mission includes initiatives such as streamlining permissions for exploratory activities, funding research, and conducting auctions for mineral blocks. While these efforts are in their early stages, they provide a promising framework for securing future supplies.

Moreover, industry experts have highlighted the importance of diversifying supply chains, a lesson learned during the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted global trade. India’s challenge lies in scaling up domestic production of REEs, which is geographically concentrated and has yet to reach efficiencies-of-scale. At the same time, India must explore alternative sources of REEs from regions outside China, such as the United States, Europe, and Africa, to ensure that its industries are not disrupted by geopolitical uncertainties.

Way Forward:

To secure a sustainable supply of REEs, India must focus on the following key areas:

  1. Diversification of Sources: India must explore and establish trade relationships with countries outside China to mitigate risks of supply disruptions. Investments in global mining operations, coupled with strategic partnerships, can help India secure access to REEs from alternative sources.
  2. Domestic Production: The NCMM should focus on accelerating the exploration and production of critical minerals within India, particularly by incentivizing private investments and streamlining the regulatory framework for mining and mineral processing. Furthermore, fostering technology development in the REE extraction and processing sector can reduce dependence on imports.
  3. Research and Development: Strengthening research on the recycling of REEs and developing alternative materials or substitutes could reduce dependence on primary mining. Investment in technological advancements related to the recovery of REEs from e-waste can also provide a significant avenue for sustainable supply.
  4. Strategic Reserves: Establishing strategic reserves of critical minerals, similar to India’s petroleum strategic reserves, would help in managing temporary disruptions in the supply of REEs.

Conclusion:

The issue of securing REEs for India’s growing industrial and defense needs highlights the challenges posed by the concentration of critical mineral production in a few countries, particularly China. While India is currently insulated from direct disruptions, the government’s efforts through the NCMM and the lessons learned from past supply chain disruptions provide a framework for building resilience. By diversifying supply sources, scaling up domestic production, and investing in R&D, India can ensure the sustainable supply of REEs and strengthen its position in global supply chains, reducing vulnerability to geopolitical tensions.

Link to Previous Year’s Questions:

  • GS Paper 2: “Evaluate the significance of critical minerals and their role in ensuring the sustainability of India’s industrial and defense sectors.” (UPSC Mains 2021)
  • GS Paper 3: “Discuss the impact of global supply chain disruptions on India’s manufacturing and technology sectors, with specific reference to rare earth elements.” (UPSC Mains 2020)

Introduction:

De-extinction, the process of bringing extinct species back to life through genetic modification, has gained attention in recent years, particularly with the announcement by Colossal Biosciences of the “resurrection” of the dire wolf. This claim has sparked both excitement and concern in the scientific community and the broader public. The case of the dire wolf presents a unique intersection of biotechnology, ecology, and ethics, raising questions about the feasibility, implications, and responsibilities involved in de-extinction efforts.

Body:

Colossal Biosciences has claimed that it successfully “resurrected” the dire wolf by editing the genome of a gray wolf, which shares 99.94% of its DNA with the extinct species. However, this claim has been met with skepticism, as the genetic modifications made were primarily cosmetic, focusing on traits like size and fur color, rather than recreating the full genetic identity of the dire wolf. Furthermore, scientific studies suggest that dire wolves may not even belong to the wolf genus, complicating the idea of bringing them back as a true wolf species.

Ethically, de-extinction raises significant concerns. While proponents argue it could restore lost biodiversity, critics highlight the potential ecological risks. The ecosystems that once supported these species no longer exist, and introducing extinct animals into modern environments could disrupt existing biodiversity, potentially causing more harm than good.

The broader conservation debate also comes into play. Resources invested in de-extinction could arguably be better spent on protecting current endangered species and restoring ecosystems that are at risk due to human-induced changes.

Way Forward:

Moving forward, it is crucial for scientists and policymakers to carefully assess the potential ecological and ethical implications of de-extinction. Regulatory frameworks should be established to ensure that such technologies are used responsibly. Conservation efforts must prioritize protecting existing ecosystems and species that are currently under threat, rather than focusing on resurrecting long-extinct animals.

Conclusion:

While the concept of de-extinction captures the imagination, it presents significant scientific, ecological, and ethical challenges. The resurrection of the dire wolf by Colossal Biosciences, while groundbreaking, highlights the complexity of reviving extinct species. Rather than focusing on recreating extinct life forms, conservation efforts should prioritize the restoration and preservation of our existing ecosystems to maintain a balance in the natural world.

Link to Previous Years’ Questions:

  • 2017: Discuss the implications of technological advancements in conservation biology. How can genetic engineering contribute to the protection of endangered species?
  • 2019: Examine the role of biotechnology in wildlife conservation and its potential impact on biodiversity conservation efforts.

Introduction:
The global shift towards Electric Vehicles (EVs) is poised to revolutionize not only the transportation sector but also the energy landscape. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, which allows EV batteries to supply power back to the grid, is a key innovation in this transition. The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) and IIT Bombay’s pilot project is a significant step toward integrating EVs into the Indian power grid, aiming to assess the feasibility of V2G technology. This integration is expected to contribute to grid stability, renewable energy (RE) utilization, and energy storage solutions. However, while the concept of V2G is promising, India’s unique challenges need to be addressed for successful implementation.

Body:

  1. V2G Technology Overview:
    V2G refers to technologies that enable EVs to return power to the grid when not in use. In a typical setup, an idle EV, connected to a bi-directional charger, can either draw power from the grid (G2V) to charge or supply power back to the grid (V2G) depending on demand. The ability to use EVs as a decentralized energy storage solution offers several benefits, including facilitating renewable energy integration and providing emergency power during grid disruptions.
  2. Global Application of V2G:
    In mature EV markets like Europe and the U.S., V2G technologies have already gained momentum. Countries like the U.K. and The Netherlands offer financial incentives to EV owners who contribute excess energy to the grid, especially during peak demand. In California, participation in the ancillary services market, where EVs help stabilize the grid, has been encouraged, with attractive compensation schemes. This has demonstrated the viability of V2G in enhancing grid stability and facilitating the use of renewable energy resources.
  3. Current Status of V2G in India:
    In India, V2G technology is still in its infancy. Although there is growing interest in EV adoption, the integration of EVs into the power grid has not been prioritized. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has initiated discussions on reverse charging, but there is a lack of a regulatory framework and infrastructure to facilitate large-scale implementation of V2G technology. Challenges such as the mismatch between supply and demand of electricity, the variable nature of renewable energy, and the inadequacy of India’s current electricity market structure hinder the widespread adoption of V2G.
  4. The KSEB-IIT Bombay Pilot Project:
    Kerala, which is witnessing rapid EV adoption, has partnered with IIT Bombay to assess the feasibility of V2G technology. This project aims to explore how EVs can support the grid during peak demand hours, particularly when solar power generation is not available. With the growth of rooftop solar in the state, the project also aims to address the issues of evening peak demand and grid reliability, potentially making EVs a key component of decentralized energy storage solutions.
  5. Challenges in Implementing V2G in India:
    • Regulatory Framework: The existing electricity market structure in India is not conducive to decentralized solutions like V2G. A supportive regulatory framework is essential to encourage investment in smart charging infrastructure and the integration of V2G.
    • Grid Infrastructure: The Indian grid infrastructure, especially in rural and semi-urban areas, is often not equipped to handle the complexities of reverse power flow from EVs.
    • EV Adoption and Charging Infrastructure: Widespread EV adoption is still a work in progress in India. Without an extensive network of charging stations, both for regular charging and V2G integration, the full potential of V2G cannot be realized.
    • Public Awareness and Incentives: To promote V2G, public awareness and incentives for EV owners to participate in grid stabilization will be crucial.

Way Forward:

  1. Policy and Regulatory Support: The Indian government should prioritize the formulation of policies that support the integration of V2G technology, including incentives for EV owners and the development of a legal framework for reverse charging.
  2. Upgrading Grid Infrastructure: There is a need for the modernization of India’s power grid to accommodate the bi-directional flow of electricity from EVs. Investments in smart grids and infrastructure that supports V2G are necessary.
  3. Promoting Smart Charging Infrastructure: The expansion of charging stations, including bi-directional chargers, is essential for the successful deployment of V2G technology across the country.
  4. Incentivizing EV Users: Offering financial incentives or subsidies to EV owners who participate in the V2G system could encourage wider adoption and contribute to grid stability.
  5. Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating the public about the benefits of V2G, such as energy security, grid stability, and potential savings, will be key to the success of such technologies in India.

Conclusion:
V2G technology has the potential to significantly enhance India’s grid stability, integrate renewable energy sources, and provide decentralized energy storage solutions. The KSEB-IIT Bombay pilot project is a promising initiative that could serve as a model for other states. However, for V2G to be effectively mainstreamed in India, addressing regulatory, infrastructural, and awareness challenges will be crucial. With the right policies, investments, and incentives, India can take a major step toward leveraging its growing EV sector to enhance energy security and sustainability.

Link to Previous Years’ Questions:

  • GS Paper 3 (Energy Security): “Discuss the role of renewable energy in enhancing India’s energy security. How can technological innovations like Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) contribute to this?”
  • GS Paper 2 (Governance and Technology): “Evaluate the challenges and benefits of implementing emerging technologies like Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) in India. Discuss the role of government policy in fostering such technologies.”

Introduction

The GenomeIndia project, launched in 2020, aims to sequence and analyze the whole genomes of 10,000 healthy Indians from 83 diverse population groups, including tribal and non-tribal communities. Its preliminary findings, published in Nature Genetics (April 2024), reveal 180 million genetic mutations, offering unprecedented insights into India’s unique genetic landscape shaped by centuries of endogamy and evolutionary history.

Key Findings & Significance

  1. Genetic Diversity & Evolutionary Insights
    • India’s population exhibits high genetic diversity due to endogamy, with distinct mutations in 98% non-coding DNA regions, crucial for tracing evolutionary history.
    • The study identified 130 million autosomal and 50 million sex chromosome variations, providing a baseline for understanding population-specific diseases.
  2. Public Health & Precision Medicine
    • The project enables identification of disease-causing mutations prevalent in specific endogamous groups (e.g., sickle cell anemia in tribal communities).
    • It supports precision medicine by tailoring treatments based on Indian genetic profiles, reducing reliance on Eurocentric genomic data.
  3. Policy Implications
    • Can guide targeted healthcare interventions, such as screening programs for genetic disorders in high-risk communities.
    • Facilitates affordable diagnostic tools for early disease detection (e.g., cancer, diabetes, and rare genetic conditions).

Way Forward

  • Expand genomic databases to include underrepresented groups (e.g., Andaman tribes).
  • Integrate genomic data with Ayushman Bharat for personalized healthcare.
  • Strengthen public-private partnerships to enhance research and therapeutic applications.

Linkage with Previous UPSC Questions

  • 2023: “Discuss the role of biotechnology in addressing India’s healthcare challenges.”
  • 2021: “How can India leverage its demographic diversity for scientific advancements?”
  • 2019: “Examine the ethical concerns associated with human genome sequencing.”

Conclusion

The GenomeIndia project is a landmark initiative that bridges the gap in global genomic representation while paving the way for evidence-based, inclusive healthcare policies. Its success can position India as a leader in population genomics and precision medicine.

Key Points for UPSC Aspirants

  • Why important? Fills gaps in global genomic data, aids in disease research, and supports Make in India in biotech.
  • Challenges: Ethical concerns (privacy, misuse of genetic data), need for stricter regulatory frameworks.
  • Global Context: Similar projects include UK Biobank, All of Us (USA), and China’s Precision Medicine Initiative.

Model Answer:

The application of gene-editing technologies like CRISPR in reviving extinct species, a process termed “de-extinction,” has emerged at the intersection of genomics, conservation, and climate intervention. Companies like Colossal Biosciences, led by Harvard geneticist George Church, are attempting to resurrect the woolly mammoth with a stated objective: combating global warming by restoring Pleistocene-era grasslands.

Feasibility of De-extinction Projects:

  • Scientific Capability:
    By comparing woolly mammoth DNA extracted from fossils to modern elephants, scientists have edited specific genes to recreate mammoth-like traits. This demonstrates remarkable precision in genome engineering.
  • Technological Limitations:
    The creation of “mammoth-like” hybrids through edited elephant embryos faces numerous biological and technical hurdles. A similar attempt with the dire wolf only produced genetically altered gray wolves, inviting skepticism about the effectiveness of such edits.
  • Lack of Peer Validation:
    Many claims, including those involving resurrected animals, have yet to undergo rigorous peer review, undermining their scientific credibility.

Environmental Implications:

  • Climate Change Mitigation:
    The theoretical model posits that reintroducing large herbivores could restore tundra grasslands, increasing albedo and reducing permafrost melting. However, such effects are speculative and marginal in the face of accelerating climate change.
  • Risk of Ecosystem Disruption:
    Introducing genetically engineered species into modern ecosystems may cause unintended ecological consequences, including disease transmission, competition with existing fauna, and disruption of fragile Arctic biodiversity.

Ethical and Conservation Concerns:

  • Diversion of Resources:
    Critics argue that millions of dollars spent on speculative de-extinction projects divert attention and resources from pressing conservation efforts needed to save thousands of endangered species today.
  • Ethical Use of Gene Editing:
    With controversial precedents like the case of He Jiankui, who claimed to have edited human embryos, the scientific community is increasingly called upon to regulate the ethical boundaries of gene editing, especially for non-health applications.

Way Forward:

  • Focus on Present Biodiversity:
    Rather than reviving extinct species, conservation efforts must prioritize protecting existing flora and fauna from habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change.
  • Establishing Ethical Guidelines:
    An international regulatory framework must be developed to govern gene-editing technologies, ensuring they serve humanity’s ecological and health interests rather than speculative ambitions.
  • Public and Scientific Oversight:
    Transparent peer-reviewed research, environmental impact assessments, and inclusive dialogue with stakeholders are crucial before launching large-scale de-extinction initiatives.

Conclusion:

While de-extinction fascinates as a scientific frontier, its current applications remain speculative, with questionable ecological benefits and significant ethical dilemmas. Conservation, as a discipline, must remain grounded in preserving what exists rather than reviving what is lost. Gene editing is a powerful tool, but its use must be guided by science, ethics, and sustainable priorities.

Introduction:

The GenomeIndia project, a pioneering initiative, has successfully sequenced the genomes of 9,772 individuals from 85 diverse populations (32 tribal and 53 non-tribal groups), uncovering 180 million genetic variants. Published in Nature Genetics, this study marks a significant milestone in understanding India’s genetic diversity and its implications for personalized medicine, disease diagnostics, and therapeutic responses. Given India’s vast ethnic and genetic heterogeneity, such research is crucial for tailoring healthcare solutions to its unique population.

Body:

  1. Significance for Healthcare & Precision Medicine:
  • The study identifies rare and unique genetic variants linked to diseases, enabling early diagnosis and targeted treatments.
  • It can help develop low-cost diagnostic kits for genetic disorders prevalent in specific communities (e.g., sickle cell anemia in tribal populations).
  • Pharmacogenomics (study of drug-gene interactions) can be enhanced, reducing adverse drug reactions and improving treatment efficacy.
  1. Understanding India’s Genetic Diversity:
  • India’s population comprises distinct genetic clusters (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Burman). This study helps map population-specific variations, aiding anthropological and evolutionary research.
  • Tribal populations, often underrepresented in genomic studies, provide insights into rare genetic mutations and adaptations.
  1. Ethical & Privacy Concerns:
  • Data Misuse: Genetic information could be exploited for discrimination in employment or insurance if not safeguarded.
  • Informed Consent: Ensuring tribal and marginalized communities fully understand the implications of genome sharing is critical.
  • Benefit Sharing: Research outcomes must equitably benefit the communities contributing genetic data.

Way Forward:

  • Strengthen Data Protection: Implement robust frameworks like the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023) to secure genomic data.
  • Community Engagement: Collaborate with tribal groups to ensure ethical participation and avoid biopiracy.
  • Public Health Integration: Use findings to develop national genetic health programs, focusing on precision medicine and preventive care.

Conclusion:

The GenomeIndia project is a transformative step towards personalized healthcare and understanding India’s genetic landscape. However, balancing scientific progress with ethical safeguards is essential to ensure inclusivity and prevent misuse. By leveraging this data responsibly, India can emerge as a leader in precision medicine while preserving genetic privacy and equity.

Previous UPSC Questions Linking to This Topic:

  1. 2023 GS III (Science & Tech): “Discuss the potential benefits and ethical concerns associated with human genome sequencing projects.”
  2. 2021 GS III: “How can biotechnology improve healthcare delivery in India? Illustrate with examples.”
  3. 2019 GS III: “Examine the role of genetic research in addressing India’s disease burden.”

 

Introduction

India’s digital connectivity landscape still has significant gaps, particularly in remote regions where terrestrial infrastructure like fiber optics and cellular towers remain inadequate. SpaceX’s partnerships with Airtel and Jio to deploy Starlink’s satellite internet services present a transformative opportunity but also raise concerns about economic dependency, geopolitical alignment, and national sovereignty.

Economic Benefits

  1. Cost-Effective Connectivity:
    • Starlink enables Airtel and Jio to provide high-speed internet in remote areas without heavy investments in ground infrastructure.
    • This accelerates India’s Digital India mission and bridges the rural-urban digital divide.
  2. Market Expansion for SpaceX:
    • India represents a massive market for Starlink, boosting its global user base.
    • Partnering with Indian telecom firms helps SpaceX navigate India’s complex regulatory environment.
  3. Competition and Pricing Concerns:
    • Starlink’s dominance (with ~7,000 satellites) risks creating a private monopoly in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) internet services.
    • This could lead to pricing control issues and dependency on a foreign player for critical infrastructure.

Geopolitical Implications

  1. Strategic Alignment:
    • Choosing Starlink (a U.S.-based firm) over China’s GuoWang or indigenous alternatives signals India’s preference for democratic alliances in the Indo-Pacific.
    • However, it also means ceding some control over communication infrastructure to a foreign entity.
  2. National Security Concerns:
    • Satellite internet involves dual-use technology with military applications.
    • Past incidents, like SpaceX restricting Ukraine’s Starlink access in 2022, highlight risks of private firms influencing national security decisions.
  3. Digital Sovereignty vs. Dependency:
    • Digital Sovereignty (High Economic + High Strategic Control): China’s GuoWang aims for this, but India lacks an equivalent system.
    • Market Dominance (High Economic + Low Strategic Control): Starlink’s current model, where India relies on a foreign provider.
    • Strategic Asset (Low Economic + High Control): ISRO’s limited satellite capacity falls here but remains economically suboptimal.

Way Forward: Balancing Pragmatism and Autonomy

  1. Strengthening Indigenous Capabilities:
    • ISRO should accelerate development of India’s own satellite internet constellation (e.g., OneWeb collaboration) to reduce dependency.
    • Public-private partnerships can facilitate technology transfer and local manufacturing.
  2. Regulatory Safeguards:
    • Mandate local data storage and security audits for Starlink-linked services.
    • Encourage competitive pricing to prevent monopolistic exploitation.
  3. Involving BSNL for Strategic Oversight:
    • BSNL, as a state-owned telecom provider, could have been a better partner to ensure government oversight in critical infrastructure.
    • Reviving BSNL’s role in rural connectivity with satellite internet can enhance India’s strategic control.
  4. Global Governance on Space Internet:
    • India should advocate for international regulations on orbital debris, spectrum allocation, and fair competition in LEO internet services.
    • Cooperate with like-minded nations to prevent a “tragedy of the commons” in space.
  5. Affordability and Inclusive Access:
    • Introduce tiered pricing models and government subsidies to ensure rural affordability.
    • Leverage “innovation at the bottom of the pyramid” to make satellite internet accessible to low-income users.

Conclusion

While Starlink’s entry into India offers a pragmatic solution to connectivity challenges, it also underscores the need for strategic autonomy in digital infrastructure. India must adopt a multi-pronged approach—boosting indigenous capabilities, enforcing regulatory safeguards, and engaging in global space governance—to ensure that satellite internet serves both economic and national security interests. The ultimate goal should be achieving “Digital Sovereignty” without compromising on accessibility and affordability.

Why This Question is Relevant for UPSC?

  • Covers GS-III (Science & Tech, Economic Development) and GS-II (International Relations, Governance).
  • Links digital infrastructure with geopolitics, security, and global governance.

Introduction:

Food safety is a critical component of public health, consumer protection, and sustainable agriculture. India’s evolution from the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 to the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 marks a transformation from a narrow view of food adulteration to a science-based, risk-oriented regulatory regime under the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). Yet, challenges remain in risk assessment, communication, and scientific capacity.

Body:

  1. Role of FSSAI and Achievements:
  • Establishment: FSSAI was created under the FSS Act, 2006, consolidating various food laws.
  • Global Alignment: By 2020, Indian food safety standards were aligned with global benchmarks, particularly those of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
  • Science-Based Approach:
    • Defined Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for pesticides.
    • Regulated food additives, veterinary drug residues, and contaminants.
  • Risk-Based Oversight: Shift from binary “adulterated vs. non-adulterated” view to acceptable daily intake (ADI) and cumulative exposure models.
  1. Key Challenges and Gaps:
  1. Lack of India-Specific Data:
    • Most toxicological benchmarks are based on international data, ignoring local dietary patterns and exposures.
    • No Total Diet Study (TDS) limits accurate cumulative risk assessment.
  2. Legacy and Outdated Regulations:
    • Example: MSG (Monosodium Glutamate) still carries a warning label, despite being scientifically validated as safe globally.
    • Contradicts JECFA and WHO recommendations.
  3. Poor Risk Communication:
    • Technical metrics like ppm or ppb are poorly understood by the public.
    • Revising standards (e.g., pesticide MRL from 0.01 mg/kg to 0.1 mg/kg) often causes fear due to misinterpretation.

Way Forward:

  1. India-Specific Scientific Research:
    • Conduct Total Diet Studies (TDS) and localized toxicological assessments to calibrate risk standards.
  2. Transparent and Simplified Risk Communication:
    • Translate complex technical standards into public-friendly language.
    • Replace misleading labels (e.g., MSG) with evidence-based consumer advisories.
  3. Capacity Building:
    • Train risk assessors with regular scientific updates and international exposure.
    • Develop interdisciplinary expertise combining toxicology, epidemiology, and food science.
  4. Periodic Standard Review:
    • Create a transparent mechanism to review and update safety standards based on emerging research.
  5. Public Engagement and Trust Building:
    • Foster dialogue with industry, academia, and civil society.
    • Leverage platforms like the Food Future Foundation and IFAD for global collaboration.

Conclusion:

India’s food safety ecosystem has matured significantly under FSSAI. However, to sustain and scale this progress, there must be a renewed focus on scientific research, transparent governance, and effective public communication. Balancing evidence-based regulation with consumer trust is essential for achieving safe, inclusive, and globally competitive food systems.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS Paper 2: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.
  • GS Paper 3: Issues relating to intellectual property rights, awareness in the fields of biotechnology, and food safety.

Previous Year Questions (Linked):

  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS Paper 3): “Enumerate the steps taken by the Government to ensure food security in the country.”
  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS Paper 3): “What are the challenges and opportunities in the food processing sector in India?”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS Paper 2): “The role of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders in development processes.”

Introduction:

India is the sixth-largest exporter of textiles globally, contributing ~11% of total exports and employing over 45 million workers. Yet, the industry faces challenges like climate change, volatile supply chains, and increasing sustainability demands. In this evolving scenario, aligning with green practices such as regenerative farming, traceability, and product circularity is crucial to retain competitiveness and support India’s ambition of becoming a $350 billion textile economy by 2030 (Ministry of Textiles).

Body:

  1. Regenerative Farming:
  • Addresses key challenges like soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate risks.
  • In Aurangabad, over 6,000 farmers have adopted the Regenerative Cotton Program, achieving:
    • Higher yields
    • Reduced chemical input
    • Better income stability
  • The Ministry of Agriculture is piloting regen farming on 1 million+ hectares, aligned with National Mission on Natural Farming.
  1. Traceability Solutions:
  • 2023 Consumer Circularity Survey: 37% of consumers prioritize traceability in textile purchases.
  • Digital tools and AI ensure end-to-end product visibility, improving brand accountability.
  • Initiatives like Kasturi Cotton and potential benefits from the India-U.K. FTA amplify India’s green branding globally.
  • EU’s Digital Product Passports (DPPs) push exporters toward traceable value chains.

III. Product Circularity:

  • India contributes 8.5% of global textile waste.
  • Circularity ensures:
    • Reduced raw material dependency
    • Extended product lifecycles
    • Factory waste reuse and bio-degradable end-use
  • Supported by REIAI (Renewable Energy and Innovation in Apparel Industry) and Viksit Bharat 2047 vision.

Way Forward:

  1. Strengthen Regenerative Supply Chains:
    • Scale farmer training with digital resource kits.
    • Encourage MSME participation in sustainable cotton clusters.
  2. Mandate Product Traceability:
    • Incentivize traceability adoption through PLI schemes.
    • Integrate with ONDC for Textiles to ensure transparency in e-commerce exports.
  3. Embed Circularity in Policy:
    • Enforce eco-labels, green audits, and recyclability benchmarks.
    • Promote public-private innovation hubs to redesign textile lifecycles.
  4. Green Trade Diplomacy:
    • Leverage FTAs to set India’s sustainability standards globally.
    • Build a climate-resilient export reputation aligned with UN SDG-12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

Conclusion:

India’s textile leadership must shift from volume-driven production to value-based sustainability. By mainstreaming regenerative farming, traceable supply chains, and circularity, India can become the world’s green manufacturing hub. With a projected $350 billion market by 2030 and potential to create 35 million new jobs, sustainability is not just ethical—it is economic strategy.

The fabric of India’s future textile economy will be woven not just with yarn, but with responsibility, innovation, and vision.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper III – Economy: Industrial growth, MSMEs, employment, and export promotion.
  • GS Paper III – Environment: Resource efficiency, Sustainable development.
  • GS Paper III – Science & Tech: Role of digital technologies in industrial transformation.

Previous Years’ UPSC Mains Questions:

  • GS III (2023): “What is circular economy? How can it be integrated into India’s development model?”
  • GS III (2020): “How can the textile industry be made more competitive and sustainable?”
  • GS III (2018): “E-commerce is increasingly important for Indian exports. Discuss with examples.”

Introduction:
Mustard oil is the third-most consumed edible oil in India, but concerns about high erucic acid content have triggered regulatory and judicial actions. The FSSAI ban on blended mustard oil (2021) and the Supreme Court’s split verdict on GM mustard (2024) aim to protect public health, yet raise broader questions on food safety, biotechnology policy, and nutritional standards.

Body:

  1. Public Health and Erucic Acid Risk:
  • Indian mustard oil contains 40–54% erucic acid, well above the <5% global safe limit.
  • High erucic acid intake, though not conclusively proven harmful for humans, is linked in animal studies to cardiotoxicity, organ damage, and growth retardation.
  • Canada’s canola oil (erucic acid <2%) is a global standard for safe mustard oil.
  1. Policy Decisions and Their Limitations:
  1. FSSAI’s 2021 Ban on blending mustard oil aimed to curb adulteration but:
    • Undermines efforts to lower erucic acid naturally through blending.
    • Ignores that blended mustard oil improves lipid profiles (lowers LDL, raises HDL).
    • A 2020 FSSAI survey showed 24.21% oil samples failed quality checks — highlighting the need for stronger regulation, not blanket bans.
  2. SC Verdict on GM Mustard (DMH-11) stalled its release due to health concerns. Yet, DMH-11 offers:
    • Lower erucic acid content (30–35%) than traditional varieties.
    • Higher yields, helping reduce India’s $20.5 billion edible oil import bill (NITI Aayog, 2023).
    • Strategic importance in India’s oilseed self-sufficiency efforts.

Way Forward:

  • Regulate, not ban blended mustard oil:
    • Permit only packaged, branded blends with clear labeling.
    • Enforce 20% blending limit and strengthen food safety infrastructure at State level.
  • Reassess GM mustard (DMH-11) through transparent, evidence-based biosafety trials with participation from independent health experts.
  • Promote indigenous plant breeding to develop low-erucic acid (<5%) mustard strains, replicating Canada’s success.
  • Encourage MSME-led edible oil innovations with FSSAI and ICAR support.

Conclusion:

India must balance consumer health, agricultural productivity, and economic imperatives in edible oil policy. Rather than outright bans, a science-led regulatory ecosystem, with informed risk assessment, transparency, and support for biotechnology, is crucial to ensure safe, affordable, and self-reliant oil consumption in India.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper III:
    • Science and Technology – Biotechnology in agriculture and health
    • Food safety and regulation
    • Agriculture – Major crops and cropping patterns
    • Public health issues

Relevant UPSC Previous Year Questions:

  • GS III 2023: “What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?”
  • GS III 2019: “How far is integrated farming system helpful in sustaining agricultural production?”
  • GS II 2017: “Examine the scope of food processing industries in India and how they can be leveraged to reduce food wastage.”
 

Introduction

Quantum communication is emerging as a disruptive technology with profound implications for national security, economic growth, and scientific advancement. It leverages principles of quantum mechanics to secure data transmission, making it virtually immune to hacking, including from future quantum computers. In a significant milestone, scientists from IIT-Delhi and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) recently demonstrated a quantum key distribution (QKD) system over a one-kilometre free-space link—ushering in a new era of cybersecurity possibilities for India.

Body

Strategic Significance of Quantum Communication:

  1. Cybersecurity Revolution: Traditional encryption techniques rely on computational complexity. Quantum communication, through QKD, offers theoretically unbreakable encryption, crucial for securing defence, financial, and governance-related data.
  2. National Security: In an era where global adversaries are investing in quantum technologies, India’s indigenous capabilities will determine its strategic autonomy. Satellite-based quantum networks can secure nationwide communication infrastructure.
  3. Technological Sovereignty: Developing quantum infrastructure domestically reduces dependence on foreign technologies, especially in sensitive sectors like defence and intelligence.

Current Initiatives and Progress:

  • National Quantum Mission (NQM): Approved in 2023 with a budget of ₹6,003 crore until 2031, it targets four verticals—quantum computing, communication, sensing/metrology, and materials.
  • IIT-Delhi-DRDO Milestone: First free-space QKD over 1 km demonstrates feasibility of secure communication networks.

Challenges Hindering Progress:

  1. Underfunding and Delayed Disbursals: Only a small fraction of the allocated ₹6,003 crore has been released. India’s quantum budget is dwarfed by China (20x higher) and the USA (5x).
  2. Administrative Bottlenecks: Absence of single-window clearances, over-documentation, and ‘just-in-time’ funding delay project execution.
  3. Talent Drain and Pay Gaps: Government salaries are uncompetitive globally, pushing scientists towards short-term contracts or overseas opportunities.
  4. Hardware Dependency: Critical components like cryostats and quantum sensors are imported due to limited domestic fabrication capability.
  5. Lack of Ecosystem for Startups: Venture capital in Indian quantum startups remains negligible due to perceived high-risk and slow regulatory processes.

Way Forward

  1. Administrative Reforms: Establish dedicated quantum research agencies with financial autonomy and simplified bureaucratic processes.
  2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Incentivize quantum startups through seed funding, grants, and regulatory sandbox environments.
  3. Talent Retention: Offer globally competitive fellowships and long-term career paths with infrastructure support to attract Indian researchers back from abroad.
  4. Infrastructure Investment: Set up indigenous manufacturing for critical quantum hardware and open-access national quantum labs.
  5. International Collaboration: Engage with countries leading in quantum tech for knowledge-sharing and joint ventures without compromising strategic autonomy.

Conclusion

Quantum communication is not just a scientific milestone but a strategic imperative. The recent demonstration by IIT-Delhi and DRDO underscores India’s potential. However, without addressing deep-rooted administrative hurdles, India risks missing the quantum leap. Strategic investment, institutional reform, and a conducive research ecosystem are essential to ensure India leads, rather than lags, in the quantum revolution.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper III (UPSC Mains):
    • Science and Technology – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
    • Indigenization of technology and development of new technology.
    • Security – Cyber Security; basics of cyber security; money-laundering and its prevention.

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS Paper III): “What are the challenges in the development of quantum computers? How does India’s National Mission on Quantum Technologies & Applications (NM-QTA) address these challenges?”
  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS Paper III): “What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of R&D in India?”
  • UPSC Mains 2023 (GS Paper III): “Discuss the role of science and technology in national security.”

Introduction

India is witnessing an extraordinary rise in Virtual Digital Asset (VDA) adoption. According to the Chainalysis Geography of Crypto Report 2024, India ranks first globally in grassroots crypto adoption for the second consecutive year. As per NASSCOM, Indian retail investors contributed $6.6 billion to crypto assets, with projections of 8 lakh jobs by 2030. Despite this momentum, the sector continues to face significant regulatory ambiguity, enforcement challenges, and tax compliance issues.

Body

1. Evolution of India’s VDA Landscape

    • The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) flagged crypto risks as early as 2013, leading to a 2018 circular banning banks from servicing crypto exchanges, later struck down by the Supreme Court in 2020.

    • The Finance Act 2022 introduced:
        • Section 194S: 1% TDS on transactions above ₹10,000.

        • Section 115BBH: 30% capital gains tax, without allowing loss offsetting.

These fiscal policies were intended as interim measures but have effectively become the de facto regulation in the absence of a legislative framework.

2. Consequences of Regulatory Vacuum

    • Between July 2022 and October 2024, Indians traded over ₹3.66 trillion on offshore, non-compliant platforms, leading to:
        • ₹2,488 crore in tax revenue loss.

        • Over ₹60 billion in uncollected TDS.

    • Measures like URL blocking failed to contain offshore trading; VPN use and mirror platforms allowed users to bypass restrictions.

3. Role of VASPs and International Norms

    • Global standards set by IMF, FATF, and FSB advocate risk-based, harmonised regulation.

    • Indian Virtual Asset Service Providers (VASPs) have:
        • Collaborated with FIU-India to strengthen AML/CTF compliance.

        • Set up cybersecurity protocols, insurance funds, and self-regulatory standards after the $230 million hack in 2024.

    • However, lack of regulatory clarity continues to push users toward non-compliant platforms, weakening India’s digital sovereignty and financial surveillance capacity.

Way Forward

    1. Comprehensive VDA Legislation:
        • Introduce a Crypto Regulatory Bill defining assets, outlining compliance norms, and establishing consumer safeguards.

    1. Empowered Regulatory Oversight:
        • Set up a dedicated authority or empower SEBI/RBI with crypto-specific technical capabilities.

    1. Tax Rationalization:
        • Review current tax provisions; introduce graded taxation and allow loss offsetting to incentivize compliance.

    1. Support Domestic VASPs:
        • Facilitate regulatory sandboxes, cybersecurity certifications, and financial incentives for compliant exchanges.

    1. Public Awareness and Digital Literacy:
        • Conduct multilingual campaigns on crypto risks, taxation, and fraud prevention.

Conclusion

India stands at a pivotal juncture. With one of the largest Web3 developer ecosystems, the country has the opportunity to lead globally in digital asset innovation. However, to ensure consumer protection, financial stability, and national security, a coherent, forward-looking regulatory framework is essential. Strengthening domestic VASPs and embedding global best practices will help India convert its crypto momentum into a responsible and resilient digital economy.

Syllabus Mapping – GS Paper 3

    • Indian Economy – Financial markets, resource mobilization

    • Science & Technology – Recent developments and impacts

    • Security – Cybersecurity and digital fraud

    • Government Policies & Regulation

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions Linkage

    • GS3 (2023): Discuss the implications of the rise of cryptocurrency on the global and Indian economy.

    • GS3 (2021): Explain how disruptive technologies are reshaping financial services in India.

    • GS3 (2020): Discuss challenges of financial regulation in the era of digital innovation.

  • GS2 (2016): Discuss the need for data privacy and cyber regulations in a digital economy.

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