INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Introduction

Sir Creek is a 96-km-long tidal estuary located in the marshy Rann of Kutch between Gujarat (India) and Sindh (Pakistan). Initially a colonial administrative boundary, the region became a maritime flashpoint post-Independence, especially impacting Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) delimitation, coastal security, and energy exploration. Recent tensions — including Pakistan’s May 2025 drone incursions in 36 locations— have renewed strategic attention on this dispute.

Body

Historical Disagreement

India’s Position

Pakistan’s Position

Boundary must follow the mid-channel as per Thalweg principle (international norm)

Cites 1914 Bombay Resolution placing border along eastern bank

Creek is navigable during high tide → mid-channel

Claims creek is not navigable → territorial control

➡ Dispute unresolved despite 2007 joint hydrographic survey and multiple rounds of talks.

Why Sir Creek Matters Today

  1. 1. EEZ and Resource Control
  • EEZ extends 200 nautical miles → direct control over:
    • Oil & gas reserves (ONCG surveys suggest potential hydrocarbons)
    • Marine biodiversity and fishing rights
  • Even shift of a few kilometers changes EEZ by 1,000+ sq. km (Bilateral Maritime Experts Estimates)

➡ Economic stakes drive territorial rigidity.

  1. 2. Maritime & Port Security
  • Close proximity to major Indian ports:
    • Mundra, Kandla — together handle ₹3 lakh crore+ annual cargo (MoPSW, 2024)
  • Jamnagar refinery — world’s largest — publicly threatened by Pak Army Chief (2025)
  • Pakistan’s China-backed projects in Sindh raise concerns of dual-use infrastructure

➡ Combined China-Pakistan strategic pressure amplifies risks.

  1. 3. Modern Threat Landscape
  • Drones/UAVs → bypass traditional marsh barriers
  • Frequent arrests of fishermen due to unmarked maritime boundary → humanitarian issue

➡ Security shifted from ground infiltration to over-the-horizon intrusion.

India’s Diplomatic & Military Approach

  • Dialogue under the 1972 Simla Agreement → no third-party mediation
  • Strengthened coastal surveillance grid
  • BSF, Marine Police, Indian Navy & Coast Guard coordination
  • Defence Minister’s Oct 2025 warning: any aggression will “change history and geography”

➡ India asserts deterrence while retaining negotiation channels.

Way Forward

Strategic Measures

Diplomatic Measures

Developmental Measures

Coastal radar + drone defense integration

Resume Joint Working Group talks

Blue economy roadmap for Western coast

Underwater hydrographic re-mapping with modern sensors

Confidence building: regulated fishing zones

Skill support to coastal fishermen communities

Strengthen port security & EEZ patrols

Permanent hotline & info-sharing during tides

Climate-resilient infrastructure in Kutch

➡ India must ensure security + resource protection + humanitarian cooperation.

Conclusion

Sir Creek is no longer just a colonial-era cartographic dispute. It is central to India’s maritime sovereignty, energy security, and coastal defense posture in the Arabian Sea amidst growing China-Pakistan axis activity. The challenge is to convert a contentious marsh into a cooperation zone, while ensuring India’s sovereign maritime rights remain intact.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping

  • GS-II: India’s relations with neighbouring countries; Boundary issues
  • GS-III: Security challenges, coastal and maritime security; Energy security

Related PYQs

2022 – GS-II India-Pakistan boundary disputes — implications for bilateral relations

2020 – GS-III Coastal and maritime security challenges for India

2018 – GS-III Impact of China-Pakistan axis on India’s strategic interests

Introduction

  • India–Australia defence cooperation has deepened significantly in the last decade, driven by shared democratic values and the need to ensure a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific. The two nations elevated ties to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2020) and signed the Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA), enabling reciprocal access to military bases. The proposed Joint Defence and Security Cooperation Declaration signals expansion of military, industrial, and maritime collaboration at a time of growing geopolitical contestation in the Indo-Pacific.

Body

  1. Strengthening Strategic & Military Interoperability
  • Defence engagements increased from 11 in 2014 to 33 in 2024 (Australian Government Data).
    • Joint exercises such as AUSINDEX, Malabar (involving Quad partners), and Pitch Black enhance tri-service coordination.
    • The Air-to-Air Refuelling Implementing Arrangement is India’s first with any nation, strengthening operational reach of Indian Air Force aircraft.
    • Maritime Security Road Map under preparation aims to build shared Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA), especially in Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
  1. Defence Industry and Technology Partnership
  • Australia recognizes India’s indigenous defence manufacturing under Make in India and Defence Production Policy 2020.
    • Potential areas:
    – Unmanned systems, cyber defence, artificial intelligence
    – Naval vessels and aerospace platforms
    – Joint R&D under iDEX and Australia’s Defence Innovation Hub
    • Defence exports from India crossed USD 3 billion (₹27,500 crore) in FY 2023-24 (Ministry of Defence), positioning India as a competitive industry partner.
  1. Convergence in Indo-Pacific Strategy
  • Shared concerns on unilateral maritime expansion and coercion in the South China Sea.
    • Support for UNCLOS-based maritime order and freedom of navigation.
    • Cooperation within Quad provides strategic balancing through collective capability.
  1. Geoeconomic and Critical Technology Linkages
  • Australia’s expertise in critical minerals such as lithium and rare earths supports India’s defence and semiconductor supply chains.
    • Collaboration in cyber and space domains under Defence Space Partnership.

Challenges

  • Divergent threat priorities: Australia’s Pacific focus vs India’s continental challenges.
    • China factor: Risk of economic coercion against Australia and border tensions for India.
    • Need for overcoming bureaucratic delays in procurement and technology transfer.

Way Forward

Area

Key Measures

Defence manufacturing

Joint production of submarines, drones, naval technologies

Maritime cooperation

Coordinated patrols in IOR; shared naval intelligence

Cyber & space

Co-development of secure communication systems

Institutional framework

Annual 2+2 Ministerial dialogues and joint strategic planning

Supply chains

Expanding cooperation on critical minerals and energy security

 

 

Conclusion

  • India–Australia defence partnership has become a stabilizing force in the Indo-Pacific, enhancing deterrence, resilience, and strategic autonomy for both nations. The new Joint Defence and Security Cooperation Declaration can transform bilateral ties into deeper defence industrial collaboration, broader maritime security coordination, and stronger alignment with like-minded partners. Sustaining this trajectory will strengthen a multipolar, secure, and rules-based Indo-Pacific order.

Syllabus Link

  • GS Paper II: India’s bilateral relations, international institutions affecting global security
    • GS Paper III: Defence modernisation, maritime security, internal and external security challenges

Relevant UPSC PYQs

  • 2023: Analyse the significance of India’s engagement in the Indo-Pacific.
    • 2022: India’s defence and strategic cooperation with major powers in Asia.
    • 2020: India’s role in maintaining maritime security in the Indian Ocean.

Introduction

India and the European Union (EU) — together representing 25% of global GDP and over €120 billion in annual trade (2024) — are seeking to reinvigorate one of the world’s most ambitious trade partnerships. The 14th round of India–EU FTA negotiations held in Brussels (October 2025) brought both sides closer to finalising an agreement by December 2025, as mandated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen.However, unresolved issues — particularly around tariffs, services, and sustainability-linked trade rules — continue to test India’s strategic balance between economic competitiveness and environmental sovereignty.

Body

  1. The Economic Significance of the India–EU FTA
  • Trade Scale:
    • Bilateral trade in goods reached €120 billion ($139 billion) in 2024, with the EU being India’s second-largest trading partner (Commerce Ministry, 2025).
    • India’s exports include textiles, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, and IT services, while imports are dominated by machinery, chemicals, and wines & spirits.
  • Investment Synergy:
    • EU investments in India stand at over €95 billion (2025), supporting sectors such as renewable energy, green tech, and automotive manufacturing.
    • The FTA aims to unlock €200 billion in bilateral trade by 2030 (NITI Aayog–EU Joint Report, 2024).
  1. Key Negotiation Themes and Challenges
  2. a) Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers
  • The EU seeks greater access for its automotive, dairy, and spirits sectors, while India demands lower duties for textiles, pharma, and IT services.
  • India’s Quality Control Orders (QCOs) have emerged as a point of contention, with the EU viewing them as non-tariff barriers.
  1. b) Trade and Sustainable Development (TSD) Chapter
  • The EU insists on binding commitments linking trade to climate and labour standards, including carbon pricing.
  • India argues that climate action cannot be bundled with trade, warning that such conditionalities undermine sovereign developmental choices.
  1. c) Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
  • The CBAM, effective from January 2026, imposes tariffs on imports based on embedded carbon emissions.
  • According to the Commerce Ministry (2025), CBAM could affect $8 billion worth of Indian exports — notably steel, aluminium, and cement.
  • India has termed the CBAM a “green protectionist tool”, and Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal has warned of reciprocal measures if Indian products are taxed unfairly.
  1. d) Services and Data Regulation
  • India seeks greater mobility for professionals, data flow flexibility, and recognition of its digital certification standards under the Data Protection Act (2023).
  1. Strategic Convergence Beyond Trade
  • The India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), launched at the G20 Summit (2023), complements the FTA by enhancing logistics, fibre-optic, and energy connectivity between India and Europe.
  • The EU’s Global Gateway Initiative aligns with India’s vision of sustainable infrastructure financing and supply chain diversification away from China.
  • The FTA would thus consolidate India’s role as a strategic manufacturing and digital partner in the Indo-Pacific.

Way Forward

  1. Green Diplomacy and Carbon Partnership:
    • Create a joint India–EU Carbon Adjustment Taskforce to harmonise emission standards and recognise India’s domestic carbon markets (2024).
  2. Calibrated Tariff Liberalisation:
    • Maintain flexibility for sensitive sectors like dairy and automobiles, while fast-tracking zero-duty access for pharma, engineering, and textiles.
  3. Institutional Mechanisms:
    • Strengthen mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) for professional services and quality certification.
  4. SME and Technology Integration:
    • Facilitate joint R&D hubs for green technologies and MSME supply chain participation under Make in India 2.0.
  5. Balanced Sustainability Clause:
    • Negotiate a non-punitive, cooperative framework on sustainability to avoid unilateral CBAM-type measures.

Conclusion

The India–EU FTA stands at the intersection of economic ambition and environmental ethics.
If concluded, it could become a template for 21st-century green trade, balancing market access with sustainable growth. However, success requires mutual accommodation — Europe must temper its regulatory rigidity, while India must embrace eco-innovation and global competitiveness. In doing so, both sides can shape a “fair and future-ready trade order”, strengthening their partnership in a fragmented global economy.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II:
    • India and its neighbourhood relations; international economic institutions and agreements.
  • GS Paper III:
    • Liberalisation, industrial policy, and effects of globalization.
    • Conservation and environmental impact of economic policies.

Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • “Critically examine the role of Free Trade Agreements in India’s trade diversification strategy.” (GS-III, 2022)
  • “Discuss the challenges in aligning trade policy with climate commitments.” (GS-II, 2021)
  • “India’s engagement with the European Union reflects a shift from aid to partnership.” (GS-II, 2018)
  • “How can India balance environmental sustainability with export competitiveness?” (Essay, 2020)

Introduction

The India–U.K. relationship, rooted in shared democratic values and historical linkages, has entered a phase of pragmatic engagement. Unlike the volatile global trade atmosphere marked by protectionism and rhetoric, the bilateral dynamic between New Delhi and London has evolved into a “mature, business-first partnership.” As per the Ministry of Commerce (2025), bilateral trade between India and the U.K. crossed USD 21 billion in 2024–25, with negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) at an advanced stage. The recent visit of U.K. Prime Minister Keir Starmer (October 2025) further deepened ties through defence, investment, and education commitments, showcasing a results-driven diplomatic model.

Body

  1. Economic and Trade Cooperation
  • Bilateral trade potential: India accounts for less than 2% of the U.K.’s total merchandise exports, while the U.K. constitutes about 3% of India’s exports — indicating vast untapped potential.
  • FTA progress: The 14th round of India–U.K. FTA talks (2025) covers tariff reductions, digital trade, and intellectual property rights. The agreement could potentially boost bilateral trade by 50% within five years (NITI Aayog projection, 2024).
  • Investment flows:
    • 64 Indian companies have committed £1.3 billion investment in the U.K. (U.K. DIT, 2025).
    • K. firms such as Rolls-Royce, BP, and Vodafone are expanding operations in India’s manufacturing, green energy, and digital infrastructure sectors.
  1. Defence and Strategic Ties
  • The £350 million missile supply agreement (2025) underlines mutual trust and technological collaboration.
  • Both nations are part of the Defence Consultative Group (DCG) and cooperate under the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) to ensure maritime security and freedom of navigation.
  • Joint military exercises like ‘Konkan Shakti’ exemplify operational coordination and defence diplomacy.
  1. Education and Cultural Cooperation
  • Two leading U.K. universities announced plans to open campuses in India under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 provisions, reinforcing academic exchange.
  • The U.K. now allows graduate route visas, facilitating easier work access for Indian students — over 140,000 Indian students are enrolled in U.K. institutions (British Council, 2024).
  • Cultural synergy deepened as Yash Raj Films (YRF) signed deals to shoot three films in the U.K., promoting creative industry linkages and tourism.
  1. Political and Diaspora Diplomacy
  • The 8 million–strong Indian diaspora in the U.K. acts as a “living bridge” fostering social and business ties.
  • The pragmatic approach of both governments avoids ideological friction, focusing instead on mutual growth, clean energy, and digital transformation.

Way Forward

  • Fast-track the India–U.K. FTA, emphasizing MSME integration, services liberalization, and green technology transfer.
  • Enhance defence co-production, including aerospace and naval systems, to strengthen India’s Atmanirbhar Bharat
  • Promote institutional partnerships through joint research in climate resilience, AI, and health sciences.
  • Leverage diaspora diplomacy for inclusive growth and innovation ecosystems.

Conclusion

India–U.K. relations exemplify “maturity without melodrama.” By focusing on economic pragmatism, educational mobility, and strategic convergence, the partnership has transcended colonial baggage to become a model for 21st-century democratic collaboration. As both nations steer through global uncertainty, this evolving synergy — built on trust, trade, and technology — promises to redefine their role as partners in shared prosperity and global stability.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II: India and its neighbourhood–relations; Bilateral, regional and global groupings; Effect of policies of developed countries on India’s interests.
  • GS Paper III (Economy): Effects of liberalization on the economy, investment models, and international trade.

Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • “India’s foreign policy has recently shifted from non-alignment to multi-alignment.” (UPSC GS-II, 2022)
  • “The significance of the Indian diaspora in shaping India’s foreign relations.” (UPSC GS-II, 2021)
  • “Examine the evolving contours of India–U.K. relations in the post-Brexit context.” (UPSC GS-II, 2020)

Introduction

The Taliban’s return to power in Afghanistan in August 2021 reconfigured South Asia’s geopolitical landscape. India, which had earlier maintained no formal ties with the group, is now cautiously recalibrating its engagement policy. The visit of Afghanistan’s Acting Foreign Minister Amir Khan Muttaqi to India in 2025 — his first since the Taliban takeover — signals a potential diplomatic thaw. The move reflects India’s balancing act between safeguarding its strategic interests and upholding democratic and humanitarian values.

Body

  1. Context and Strategic Rationale
  • Security Concerns: Afghanistan remains a potential haven for terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad. Closer engagement ensures intelligence coordination and prevents anti-India elements from exploiting Afghan soil.
  • Regional Balancing: The Taliban’s friction with Pakistan and improved ties with Iran and Russia present India an opportunity to counterbalance Pakistan’s influence in the region.
  • Economic & Humanitarian Stakes: India has invested over $3 billion in Afghan infrastructure (Salma Dam, Parliament Building, Zaranj-Delaram Highway). Humanitarian engagement sustains goodwill among Afghans.
  • Diplomatic Parity: India’s reopening of its embassy in Kabul and the decision to exchange diplomats mirrors actions by Russia, China, and Iran, signaling India’s pragmatic recognition of regional realities.
  1. Diplomatic Developments and Symbolism
  • The UN Security Council’s sanctions waiver for Muttaqi facilitated his travel to India, underscoring multilateral endorsement.
  • Both sides emphasized “respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity,” implicitly rejecting Pakistan’s territorial narrative.
  • Taliban’s assurance that Afghan soil will not be used against India marks a shift from its 1996–2001 stance, when Indian missions were attacked.
  • India announced new hospitals, trade facilitation measures, and humanitarian supplies, deepening people-to-people connectivity.
  1. Concerns and Ethical Dilemmas
  • Legitimacy vs Pragmatism: Engaging with a regime that bans women’s education and curtails minorities’ rights risks India’s moral standing as the world’s largest democracy.
  • Optics of Engagement: The flag-raising controversy at the Afghan Embassy in Delhi and exclusion of women journalists from initial press events exposed diplomatic mismanagement.
  • Risk of Normalisation: Premature diplomatic elevation could indirectly legitimize the Taliban, despite lack of inclusivity or constitutional governance.
  • Regional Security Volatility: Taliban’s internal factions, ISKP’s growing footprint, and porous borders remain long-term threats to India’s western flank.
  1. India’s Strategic Balancing Approach
  • India’s engagement is pragmatic, not recognition-based — aimed at protecting assets, influencing outcomes, and maintaining regional dialogue.
  • Through soft-power diplomacy — scholarships, humanitarian aid, health infrastructure — India sustains its moral legitimacy while staying engaged.
  • Coordination with regional players like Russia, Iran, and Central Asia aligns with a multipolar regional architecture that excludes Pakistan’s monopoly over Afghan affairs.

Way Forward

  1. Structured Engagement: Continue a “calibrated engagement without recognition” policy through humanitarian channels and Track-II diplomacy.
  2. Counter-Terrorism Cooperation: Establish intelligence coordination mechanisms under the SCO and UN frameworks to monitor extremist activity.
  3. Humanitarian Leverage: Link future assistance with tangible progress on women’s rights and minority inclusion.
  4. Regional Multilateralism: Revive the India-Central Asia Dialogue and Heart of Asia Process to shape collective regional stability strategies.
  5. Public Diplomacy: Maintain transparency to reaffirm India’s principled foreign policy image while pursuing realpolitik interests.

Conclusion

India’s outreach to the Taliban underscores a realist recalibration—balancing moral diplomacy with security imperatives. While engagement is vital for protecting India’s strategic interests and regional stability, it must not come at the cost of India’s global reputation as a democratic power championing human rights. The challenge lies in sustaining a “principled pragmatism” that advances both strategic depth and moral consistency in a volatile neighbourhood.

Related Previous Year Questions

  • UPSC GS Paper II (2022): “India’s relations with its neighbours are determined by the security imperatives rather than ideological affinity.” Discuss.
  • UPSC GS Paper II (2021): “The changing dynamics of India-Afghanistan relations in the context of Taliban resurgence.” Examine.
  • UPSC GS Paper II (2017): “The question of India’s neighbourhood policy has always been one of balancing realism and idealism.” Critically analyze.

 

Introduction

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), created in 1961, historically championed decolonisation, sovereignty, and peace during the Cold War. However, with changing geopolitics — multipolarity, rising U.S.–China rivalry, post-pandemic inequalities — the role of NAM requires renewal.

At the 19th NAM Ministerial Meeting, Kampala (2025), India urged NAM to “re-purpose” itself to advance the Global South agenda, emphasizing equitable development, reform of global governance, and humanitarian justice (Palestine crisis).

Body

  1. 1. Why must NAM evolve?

Challenges in Global South

Issues

Post-pandemic inequity

SDG progress reversal in 85% developing nations (UNDP 2024)

Climate injustice

Africa <4% emissions but worst impacted

Debt distress

40+ countries in high debt risk (IMF)

Global governance deficits

UNSC structure unchanged since 1945

Digital divide

Limited access to emerging tech & value chains

This demands NAM move from anti-alignment posture → pro-development advocacy.

  1. 2. India’s Position at Kampala

MoS External Affairs Kirti Vardhan Singh highlighted:

  • NAM must advance aspirations of Global South
  • Call for reformed multilateralism
    • UNSC reform to reflect present power realities
    • Democratise International Financial Institutions (IFIs)
  • Human mobility reform
    • “De-stigmatise movement of skilled professionals”
    • Tied to India’s growing demographic dividend (median age 28.2)
  • Solidarity with Palestine
    • Support for two-state solution with:
      • Sovereign, independent Palestine
      • Secure borders alongside Israel
    • Emphasis: civilians must not perish due to conflict

NAM must ensure that peace & justice remain integral to connectivity and development projects (e.g., IMEC stalled due to Gaza war).

  1. 3. Implications for India

Strategic Benefit

Relevance

Leadership of Global South

Builds on India hosting Voice of Global South Summit (2023–24)

Multilateral Reform

Strengthens India’s case for permanent UNSC seat

Economic Partnerships

Energy, food, skills, digital collaboration

Soft Power Role

Champion of decolonisation & fairness

NAM remains a platform where India is seen as a consensus builder, not a hegemon.

Way Forward

  1. Institutional Revitalisation
    • Clear agenda → development finance, climate justice, tech equity
  2. South-South Cooperation
    • Expand India’s initiatives like ISA, CDRI, DPI exports (UPI, CoWIN)
  3. Peace and Conflict Mediation
    • Active diplomacy in Palestine, Africa & Indo-Pacific hotspots
  4. Human Capital Mobility
    • Skill recognition agreements & migration governance frameworks
  5. Leveraging NAM for Economic Corridors
    • Use NAM members to strengthen Blue Economy + African market access
  6. Collective Voice at G20 & UN
    • Unified negotiations for debt restructuring and fair trade

Conclusion

NAM must transition from a Cold War identity into a 21st-century coalition that safeguards developmental rights and political justice. India’s renewed engagement positions NAM as a vital platform to amplify the voice of 120+ Global South nations, ensuring a fair, inclusive and multipolar international order — essential for global peace and Viksit Bharat @2047.

Syllabus Tags

  • GS-II: NAM relevance, India and Global South, UN reforms, Foreign Policy

Relevant PYQs

2023 – India’s role in shaping multilateral institutions

2019 – Relevance of NAM in contemporary geopolitics

2017 – India’s leadership in Global South

2015 – Challenges and future of NAM

Introduction

The India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), launched at the G20 Summit in New Delhi (September 2023), aimed to create a multimodal connectivity network linking India–UAE–Saudi Arabia–Jordan–Israel–Europe. However, the October 7, 2023 Hamas–Israel conflict and subsequent Gaza crisis halted progress. Egypt asserts that IMEC cannot move forward without resolving the Palestinian statehood issue, central to regional peace.

Body

  1. 1. Why Palestinian Issue is Central to IMEC Progress

Concern

Impact

Gaza War & regional escalation

Routes through Israel remain insecure

Arab nations’ domestic political sensitivities

Resistance to normalization without Palestinian rights

Legitimacy of cross-border projects

Projects perceived as bypassing humanitarian justice

Trust deficit among partners

Weakens multilateral decision-making

Egypt emphasises two-state solution as a prerequisite for sustainable connectivity and economic cooperation.

  1. 2. IMEC: Strategic Significance for India
  • Reduces dependence on Suez Canal-only routes
  • Counters China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) influence
  • Facilitates energy corridors + green hydrogen trade
  • Enhances India’s role in West Asia & Europe supply chains
  • Improves efficiency: 40% reduction in shipping time (Ministry of Commerce estimates)

But Choke point: Haifa Port (Israel) → currently insecure due to conflict.

  1. 3. Egypt’s Offer and India–Egypt Convergence

Domain

Scope for Cooperation

SCZONE (Suez Canal Economic Zone)

India invited to set up industrial clusters like Russia/China

Market access

Egypt offers gateway to 2+ billion consumers across Africa, EU, WANA

Trade diversification

Target: double bilateral trade from current $5 billion

Sectors identified

Pharmaceuticals, digital tech, AI, minerals, renewables, phosphates

Egypt sees India as a major Eurasian connector, while India needs redundant connectivity beyond IMEC.

  1. 4. Geopolitical Implications for India
  2. Strategic Balancing
    • Maintain ties with Israel, Arab states, U.S. while advocating humanitarian rights
  3. Energy & Diaspora Security
    • 8+ million Indians in Gulf; any conflict threatens remittances & supply chains
  4. Global South Leadership
    • India can leverage credibility on sovereignty, decolonisation & justice
  5. BRICS & SCO Synergies
    • Egypt joined BRICS (2024) → deeper South-South cooperation

Way Forward

  1. Diplomatic Leadership for Peace
    • Support UN-backed two-state solution
    • Enhance mediation via India–Egypt Strategic Dialogue
  2. Parallel Connectivity Development
    • Strengthen INSTC, Chabahar, and Africa outreach to diversify risks
  3. Industrial Partnership in SCZONE
    • Indian Special Economic Zone in Suez → manufacturing hub for EU–Africa
  4. Humanitarian Assistance
    • Aid for Gaza civilians strengthens India’s soft power
  5. Resilient Infrastructure Planning
    • Design logistics networks with alternative routing during crises

Conclusion

IMEC’s disruption underscores that connectivity cannot progress without geopolitical stability.
A just & durable resolution of the Palestinian issue is essential for economic corridors to function and endure. India must pursue balanced diplomacy, economic diversification, and cooperative security frameworks with Egypt and West Asian partners. This aligns with India’s vision of secure, inclusive and rules-based connectivity essential for Viksit Bharat @2047 and its Global South leadership.

Syllabus Tags

  • GS-II: India & Neighbourhood, West Asia, Regional Connectivity
  • GS-II: International Organisations & Global Issues

Relevant PYQs

2023 – India’s approach toward West Asia crisis diplomacy
2021 – Significance of connectivity corridors for India
2018 – India’s maritime and continental connectivity strategy

Introduction

The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), signed in 2015, imposed limits on Iran’s uranium enrichment in exchange for sanctions relief. Following U.S. unilateral withdrawal (2018) under the Trump administration, Iran gradually rolled back its commitments. As of 2025, Iran has declared that all restrictions have “terminated”, marking the expiry of the deal’s initial 10-year duration. This raises renewed fears of nuclear proliferation and regional instability in West Asia.

Body

  1. 1. Why did JCPOA collapse?
  • Asymmetric compliance: Iran honoured commitments; U.S. reimposed sanctions
  • Loss of economic benefits → Iran accelerated enrichment
  • Lack of enforcement & trust deficits among negotiating powers
  • Israel–Iran proxy escalations in Syria, Gaza, Lebanon
  • Hardliners gaining influence in Tehran politics

 

 

 

  1. 2. What does Iran’s new stance mean?

Current Capability Indicators*

Source

Enrichment up to ~60% U-235 (near weapons-grade)

IAEA 2024

Stockpile ~20 times JCPOA limit

IAEA 2024

Rapidly expanding advanced centrifuges

Fordow, Natanz sites

*IAEA: Iran is now “within weeks of weapons-grade enrichment capacity” if it chooses.

Iran insists it aims for energy & medical isotope use, but technical thresholds raise alarm.

  1. 3. Global & Regional Implications
  2. Middle East Instability
  • Possible nuclear arms race (Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Egypt may pursue parity)
  • Intensified Israel–Iran confrontation → maritime & energy chokepoint insecurity
    • 40% global energy trade flows through Strait of Hormuz (IEA data)
  1. U.S.–Europe Credibility Erosion
  • Questions over reliability of western-led security agreements
  1. Boost for China & Russia
  • Tehran may align deeper with BRICS & Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
  • Sanctioned oil exports increasingly reliant on China
  1. 4. What does it mean for India?

Implication

Impact on India

Oil imports

Reopens cheaper Iranian crude option; India’s Iran imports fell from 10% (2016) → 0% (2023) due to U.S. sanctions

Chabahar Port connectivity

Strategic access to Central Asia & Afghanistan at risk if U.S. sanctions tighten

Indian diaspora safety

~85 lakh Indians in Gulf affected by instability

Geopolitical balancing

Navigating ties with U.S., Israel, Gulf states vs historic Iran ties

India’s energy security and regional strategy are directly affected.

Way Forward

  1. Support Revival of Diplomatic Framework
    • Back E3-plus-China-Russia diplomacy, with India in Track-II engagement
  2. Sanctions-Proof Connectivity
    • Strengthen INSTC & Chabahar logistics involving multilateral participation
  3. Energy Diversification
    • Secure long-term LNG and strategic petroleum reserves
  4. Promote IAEA Verification
    • Ensure Tehran remains under nuclear safeguards
  5. Regional Dialogue Advocacy
    • Encourage GCC–Iran de-escalation through platforms like SCO & UN
  6. Protect Diaspora
    • Advance contingency planning for migrant welfare in Gulf states

Conclusion

The expiry of JCPOA marks a dangerous vacuum in global non-proliferation architecture.
For India, a stable Iran is vital for energy security, strategic connectivity, and regional balance.
Diplomacy—not coercion—remains the only sustainable pathway to prevent a nuclearised West Asia, aligning with India’s vision of inclusive regional security and multipolar stability.

GS-II Syllabus Tags

  • India & West Asia Relations
  • International Security & Nuclear Non-Proliferation
  • Impact of Global Issues on India’s Interests

Relevant PYQs

2023 – India’s balancing role in West Asia
2021 – U.S. withdrawal from international agreements & impact
2018 – Significance of JCPOA
2015 – Nuclear security challenges globally

Introduction

Since the Taliban takeover of Kabul in August 2021, India had adopted a cautious stance focused on humanitarian assistance and protection of Indian investments. However, recent developments indicate a calibrated engagement:

  • Meeting between EAM S. Jaishankar & Taliban FM Amir Khan Muttaqi (Oct 2025)
  • Decision to upgrade India’s technical mission in Kabul to a formal embassy
  • Diplomatic interactions despite non-recognition of the “Islamic Emirate”

This suggests a pragmatic recalibration acknowledging ground realities in Afghanistan.

Body

  1. 1. Why is India engaging the Taliban?

Drivers

Rationale

Security concerns

Prevent use of Afghan soil by LeT & JeM (UN 2022 report highlighted camps in eastern Afghanistan)

Pakistan dynamics

Taliban’s growing rift with Pakistan → strategic leverage

Protecting Indian assets

India invested ~₹23,000 crore (~$3 billion) in projects since 2001 (Parliament/MoEA data)

Humanitarian role

India sent 50,000+ MT wheat, medical aid, vaccines

Regional power balance

Counter Chinese influence & Russia’s official recognition

Connectivity & trade compulsions

Pakistan denies transit; Chabahar under renewed U.S. sanctions

India must avoid strategic marginalisation as others (Russia, China, Iran, Gulf states) engage deeply.

  1. 2. What did the Muttaqi visit achieve?
  • Decision to reopen embassy with full diplomatic presence
  • Taliban agreed to counter anti-India terror groups
  • India handed over 20 ambulances; committed to water & health projects
  • Delegation-level talks at Hyderabad House indicated high-level protocol

Although women’s rights concerns were not publicly raised, media questions forced Taliban clarification.

  1. 3. Diplomatic Risks & Ethical Dilemmas
  2. Legitimising an illiberal regime
    • Taliban continues systematic repression of women (UNDP 2024: women’s employment collapsed by 25%)
  3. Internal factionalism
    • Differences between Kabul and Kandahar leadership → uncertainty
  4. Future Taliban-Pakistan rapprochement
    • Could undercut India’s leverage
  5. Embassy security concerns
    • Previous terror attacks on Indian missions (2008, 2009)
  6. Reputational costs
    • Balancing strategic necessity vs democratic values

Recognition is not imminent, but diplomatic presence increases expectations of reciprocity.

Way Forward

  1. Security-first Cooperation
    • Institutionalised mechanism for counter-terror intelligence sharing
  2. Protect India’s Developmental Assets
    • Secure power dams, Parliament building, highways built by India
  3. People-Centered Outreach
    • Scholarships for Afghan students in India; women-focused humanitarian aid
  4. Multilateral Engagement
    • Use UNAMA, SCO, Heart of Asia, Quad-Plus dialogues
  5. De-risk Diplomacy
    • Staff rotation + high-security protocol for Indian embassy
  6. No Premature Recognition
    • Recognition only upon verifiable guarantees on terrorism and women’s rights
  7. Leverage Regional Contradictions
    • Strategic balancing amid Pakistan-Taliban tensions

Conclusion

India’s evolving Afghanistan policy reflects pragmatic realism — maintaining contact without full legitimisation. A calibrated approach that protects India’s security interests, prevents strategic exclusion, and sustains people-centric engagement is essential. But engagement cannot dilute India’s democratic and gender-inclusive values. India must therefore pursue a conditional cooperation framework, keeping long-term stability and regional leadership at the core of its strategy.

Syllabus Tags

  • GS-II: India & Neighbourhood Policy, International Relations, Terrorism
  • GS-III: Internal Security—Cross-border terrorism

Relevant PYQs

2023 – India’s neighborhood-first policy: opportunities & challenges
2021 – Implications of U.S. troop withdrawal from Afghanistan
2018 – India’s role in promoting peace in Afghanistan
2016 – Strategic significance of Afghanistan for India

Introduction

Cultural and literary symbols shape collective identity and moral imagination. However, in recent years, corporations, defence contractors, and militaries increasingly appropriate mythological and fictional narratives to legitimise technologies of surveillance, war, and domination.
This trend is visible in the U.S., Europe, and India — raising ethical concerns about militarisation of culture, ideological distortion, and public desensitisation.

Body

  1. 1. Corporate & Military Appropriation: Key Examples
  • Tolkien-inspired companies in U.S. defence sector
  • Palantir Technologies → predictive surveillance tools used by intelligence agencies
    • Named after palantíri — “seeing stones” in Middle-earth
    • Raises privacy, authority & manipulation dilemmas
  • Anduril Industries → autonomous drone and surveillance systems
    • Name taken from Andúril — symbol of heroic redemption
    • Algorithmic decision-making may centralise coercive power
  • Reflect Orbital’s planned Eärendil-1 satellite
    • Proposes sunlight reflection from orbit to boost solar generation
    • Concerns: ownership of sunlight, orbital debris, light pollution
    • Contradiction: Tolkien opposed mechanistic domination of nature
  • India: Mythological nomenclature for defence tech
    • g., Varunastra torpedo (DRDO), Agni/Akash missiles
    • Projects moral authority & glorified power using sacred symbols

Why Do Institutions Use Cultural Symbols?

  • Legitimisation effect: myth connects power with moral superiority
  • Branding value: public acceptance & funding become easier
  • Narrative warfare: identity politics used to mobilise support
  • Technological dominance portrayed as heroic duty

Ethical & Societal Implications

  1. Distortion of Literature & Culture
    • Tolkien’s anti-war themes rebranded as tools of militarism
    • Original creative intent lost → public understanding reshaped
  2. Weaponisation of Imagination
    • Fiction becomes propaganda for surveillance capitalism
    • Ethical concepts like consent, autonomy, oversight sidelined
  3. Normalisation of Militarisation
    • Civilian technology users align with defence narratives
    • Strengthens techno-authoritarianism
  4. Geopolitical Risks
    • Autonomous weapons + cultural symbolism → ideological framing of wars
    • Reduces space for democratic scrutiny of tech giants
  5. Cultural Polarisation
    • Extremist groups reinterpret fiction as racial/civilisational battles
    • Example: misuse of Tolkien themes by white-nationalist groups

India-Specific Concerns

  • Risk of religious symbolism justifying state violence
  • Cultural capital turned into strategic messaging without ethical guardrails
  • Pressure on artists & writers due to politicised reinterpretations

Way Forward

  1. Transparent Ethics Framework
    • Parliamentary oversight on naming defence projects
    • Explicit evaluation of cultural sensitivities
  2. Public Communication Standards
    • Ensure literary/cultural references not used for misinformation
  3. Academic Monitoring
    • Track extremist reinterpretation of cultural works
  4. Promotion of Cultural Literacy
    • Contextual teaching to preserve authors’ original intent
  5. Global Norms for Responsible Technology Naming
    • UNESCO-supported guidelines to prevent cultural exploitation in warfare

Conclusion

The appropriation of literature and myth in defence and surveillance domains reflects a dangerous fusion of imagination with instruments of control. Preserving the sanctity of cultural heritage is essential to prevent ethical erosion, democratic deficit, and militarised identity politics in the digital age. Modern security must be rooted in human dignity — not mythic domination.

Syllabus Tags

  • GS-IV: Ethics of technology, Media & Influence on values
  • GS-II: International security, Soft power & Culture
  • GS-I: Role of literature in society

Relevant PYQs

2023 – Ethical issues in new technologies
2021 – Media shaping social consciousness
2019 – Soft power in India’s foreign policy
2017 – Art & culture as national identity tools

Introduction

Iran’s sanctions-hit economy has contracted cumulatively by over 12% since 2018 (IMF), largely due to renewed U.S. sanctions and global banking isolation. In 2025, Iran ratified the UN Convention for Suppression of Terror Financing (CFT) — a key requirement to comply with Financial Action Task Force (FATF) standards. The move aligns with President Masoud Pezeshkian’s mandate to revive the economy through diplomatic re-engagement and access to global financial systems.

Body

✔Why Iran Joined CFT Now

Strategic Goal

Expected Outcome

Sanctions relief

Reduced banking restrictions, access to SWIFT-like systems

Trade revival

Improved oil exports & global investment inflows

Economic stability

Curb inflation (~40% in 2024; IMF) and currency devaluation

Diplomatic outreach

Improved relations with West & financial institutions

Regional legitimacy

Demonstrates willingness to cooperate on counter-terror norms

Iran has also pledged reforms under its action plan to exit the FATF blacklist, where it has been since 2020 alongside North Korea.

✔ Domestic Political Concerns

Despite economic incentives, opposition remains strong:

✔ Ultra-conservative factions argue:

  • CFT could expose military financial networks, especially IRGC
  • Foreign monitoring may undermine strategic autonomy
  • Fear of Western “espionage through finance data”

✔ Parliamentary delays and vetoes have marked previous FATF attempts.

This reflects tension between economic pragmatism and ideological resistance within Iran’s power structure.

✔ Global & Regional Implications

Positive

✔Better monitoring of terror financing in West Asia
✔Improved energy market stability if Iran’s oil export capacity rises
✔Potential reduction in informal financial flows benefiting extremist networks
✔Opens channels for India–Iran trade & Chabahar port expansion (critical for INSTC)

Skepticism Persists

  • U.S. sanctions remain unaffected unless nuclear negotiations revive
  • Terror designation of groups like IRGC by U.S. complicates implementation
  • Regional adversaries (Israel, Gulf states) remain suspicious of Iran’s intent

FATF compliance ≠ immediate geopolitical normalization.

Way Forward

✔ Balanced Implementation

  • Maintain security confidentiality while ensuring FATF transparency

✔ International Engagement

  • Resume JCPOA-like negotiations with EU & U.S. to unlock real sanctions relief

✔ Financial Sector Reform

  • Strengthen banking compliance, AML/CFT systems & regulatory independence

✔ Regional Confidence Building

  • Dialogue through OIC & SCO to address mutual terror financing concerns

✔ India–Iran Partnership

  • Expand trade via rupee-dirham channels, Chabahar logistics & energy security cooperation

Conclusion

Iran’s ratification of CFT signals strategic flexibility — prioritizing economic revival over ideological rigidity. While FATF compliance alone will not dismantle sanctions, it is a critical confidence-building step toward reintegrating Iran into the global economy and strengthening collective action against terror financing. Sustained diplomatic efforts will determine whether this policy shift leads to genuine transformation or remains symbolic.

UPSC Syllabus Link

  • GS Paper 2: International relations, global governance, international conventions
  • GS Paper 3: Terrorism financing, global security cooperation

Relevant UPSC PYQs

  • 2023: Terror financing as a global threat — challenges and cooperation
  • 2020: India’s role in global counter-terror frameworks
  • 2017: Impact of sanctions and global financial restrictions on foreign policy

Introduction

India’s diplomatic posture in Afghanistan is shaped by its strategic geography, security concerns, and historic development partnership worth over $3 billion — the largest by any regional power (MEA). After withdrawing diplomatic personnel in August 2021 due to Taliban takeover, India restored official links in 2025 by upgrading its Technical Mission into a full-fledged embassy in Kabul.

The Taliban has welcomed this decision as strengthening trust, trade and regional peace.

Body

✔ Why India Recalibrated its Engagement

  1. Humanitarian Imperatives
    • Afghanistan faces over 29 million people needing humanitarian aid (UN OCHA 2024)
    • India supplies wheat, vaccines, medical aid → embassy needed for delivery & coordination
  2. Security & Counterterrorism Concerns
    • Presence of ISKP, anti-India groups (LeT, JeM) remains
    • Diplomatic presence enables intelligence coordination & monitoring
  3. Strategic Balance vs Pakistan & China
    • Pakistan’s deep influence through ISI–Taliban ties
    • China eyeing mineral access, Belt & Road expansion (Wakhan Corridor strategy)
    • India seeks “strategic foothold” amid shifting power equations
  4. Connectivity & Trade Prospects
    • Chabahar port, INSTC corridors require stable engagement
    • Afghan private sectors keen on Indian investment & education ties
  5. Diaspora & Consular Needs
    • Protecting Indian nationals and Afghan partners, especially students

Risks & Concerns

✔ Legitimacy Challenge

  • India does not officially recognise Taliban regime → must avoid perception of political endorsement

✔ Human Rights & Gender Restrictions

  • Girls’ education ban, women’s rights violations → ethical dilemma for engagement

✔ Terror Sanctuary Risks

  • Groups operating freely could jeopardize India’s internal security

✔ Political Stability Uncertain

  • Factionalism within Taliban & absence of inclusive governance

✔Implications for India

Positive Outcomes

Concerns

Influence over regional peace architecture

Normalisation without human rights guarantees

Soft power revival through development

Risk of diplomatic assets amid instability

Countering China-Pak strategic axis

Limited leverage over Taliban behaviour

India’s calibrated step reflects a realist foreign policy approach: “engage without recognition”.

Way Forward

✔ Conditional Engagement Framework

  • Link cooperation to women’s education, inclusive governance and anti-terror commitments

✔ Regional Cooperation

  • Work with Qatar, Iran, Central Asia on reconstruction and peace diplomacy

✔ Maintaining Development Leadership

  • Expand food security, health, infrastructure & capacity-building
  • Scholarships for Afghan students & women leaders

✔ Secure Diplomatic Presence

  • Controlled staffing, intelligence sharing, security coordination with allies

✔ Track-II & People-Centric Diplomacy

  • Partner with civil society & UN agencies to keep Afghan people at the centre

Conclusion

India’s decision to upgrade its Kabul embassy signals that strategic vacuum is not an option in Afghanistan. By combining realism with humanitarian concern, India can protect its security interests while supporting Afghans’ aspirations for stability, dignity, and development. Engagement must be measured, conditional, and people-first, aligned with India’s role as a responsible regional power.

UPSC Syllabus Link

  • GS Paper 2: India’s neighbourhood relations, international organisations, diaspora & development cooperation

Relevant PYQs

  • 2023: India’s strategic interests in Afghanistan post-U.S. withdrawal
  • 2021: India’s foreign policy balancing realism and idealism
  • 2017: Challenges & prospects of India’s engagement in Central Asia

 

Introduction

Migration has historically shaped economies, societies, and national identities. Yet, the politics of fear around immigration is surging across Western democracies. The U.K., which hosts over 10 million foreign-born residents (ONS, 2024), is witnessing a shift from regulating illegal migration to targeting legal residency and settlement rights, signalling growing nativist populism.

Body

✔ Global Rise of Nativism & Toxic Politics

  • Former U.S. President Donald Trump’s rhetoric at the UNGA accused Europe of a “failed open borders experiment”.
  • Anti-immigrant campaigns frame migrants as threats to:
    ✓ culture
    ✓ security
    ✓ welfare systems

This marks a transition from economic absorption concerns to racialised identity politics.

Case Study: United Kingdom’s Shifting Policy

Political Actor / Policy

Nature of Shift

Implications

Reform UK Party

Scrap ILR; replace with conditional 5-year visas; stricter income & language rules

Legal migrants pushed into precarity; even existing ILR holders uncertain

Labour Government

ILR qualifying period increased to 10 years; proof of “high” English proficiency + employment + volunteering

Establishes 2-tier society: unconditional citizens vs migrants who must constantly prove “worthiness”

Conservative narratives

“Not seeing another white face” → cultural homogeneity anxieties

Debate shifts explicitly to race

Result: Legal migration = social threat narrative → emboldens xenophobic forces.

Democratic & Human Rights Concerns

  • Risk of hierarchies of citizenship:

✓ white British vs “others”

  • Higher vulnerability of lawful migrants → social fragmentation
  • Dehumanising measures: shackling deportees, criminalising entire communities
  • “Othering” → legitimises hate speech & discrimination

As seen in U.S. H1B visa curbs and birthright citizenship debates.

✔ What Lessons for India?

India has its own heated immigration discourse:

  • “Infiltrators” used as a political label
  • NRC-NPR debates in Assam & nationwide
  • Targeting migrants based on religion, ethnicity, region

Yet India’s development relies heavily on:

✔internal migration (450 million+ internal migrants: Census estimates)
✔global migrants (largest diaspora: ~18 million Indians abroad – UNDESA 2024)

Demonising migrants can:

  • undermine labour supply for construction, agriculture, informal economy
  • fuel communal tensions
  • weaken India’s soft power image internationally

Way Forward

✔Evidence-based, rights-driven immigration policy

  • Assess contribution to labour markets, demography, innovation

✔Strengthen social cohesion mechanisms

  • Community integration programs
  • Anti-discrimination enforcement

✔Responsible Political Communication

  • Avoid rhetoric that creates fear or hierarchies of belonging

✔Humanitarian Approach to External and Internal Migrants

  • Safeguard dignity, consistent with Article 14 & 21 protections

✔International Cooperation

  • Partner with U.K./EU to secure diaspora rights amid changing policies

Conclusion

Immigration debates test the moral core of a nation. As Ernest Renan argued, nations are woven not by blood or borders but by the desire to live together. Democracies must ensure that electoral politics does not fracture this shared future through fear and exclusion. The challenge is to balance legitimate border concerns with the universal dignity of people on the move.

UPSC Syllabus Link

  • GS Paper 2: Citizenship, diaspora issues, rights of migrants
  • GS Paper 1: Society — communalism, social harmony, multiculturalism

Relevant PYQs

  • 2023: “How do identity politics and migration reshape societal cohesion?”
  • 2020: Debate around Citizenship Amendment Act and constitutional principles
  • 2017: Challenges faced by Indian diaspora due to changing immigration policies

Introduction

Democracy thrives on informed public discourse, where the government’s communication acts as a vital bridge between the State and citizens. India’s ranking of 159/180 in the 2024 World Press Freedom Index (Reporters Without Borders) raises concerns about shrinking transparency norms. The recent muted response to UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer’s 2025 India visit, despite progress in India–UK trade relations, magnifies this unease.

Body

Context

  • India–UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (FTA) concluded in May–July 2025, expected to boost bilateral trade above £36 billion (UK Govt., 2024).
  • Unlike global diplomatic practices, the Indian side remained unusually silent on tangible outcomes of Starmer’s visit.

 

 

 

Instances of Communication Gap

Event/Outcome

Announced by UK

Announced by India

£1.3 billion Indian investments in UK by 64 companies

Detailed data including jobs & sectors

No release

£350 million missile deal for Indian Army

Disclosed

Silent

Yash Raj Films collaboration to produce 3 films in UK

Released

No info

This created a perception imbalance where foreign stakeholders appeared more forthcoming about bilateral gains than the Indian government.

Concerns & Implications

  1. Erosion of Democratic Accountability
    • Citizens remain unaware of decisions involving public resources and national interests.
  2. Media’s Constrained Role
    • Journalists face access-dependent vulnerability; any critique risks being labelled “anti-government”.
  3. Strategic Ambiguity Risk
    • Lack of transparency can fuel speculation and misinformation — harmful during sensitive diplomatic engagements.
  4. Reputational Costs in Global Diplomacy
    • Trading partners expect reciprocal openness; India’s silence may signal bureaucratic opacity.
  5. Internal Governance Deficit
    • Indicates challenges in inter-ministerial data consolidation and communications delivery.

Government’s Likely Rationale

  • Narrative control on foreign policy outcomes
  • Avoiding political controversy where gains seem skewed
  • Preventing premature disclosure of sensitive investment commitments
  • Managing domestic expectations until tangible results emerge

However, selective silence — despite aggressive publicity on GST rate cuts — reflects communication asymmetry rather than strategic intent.

Way Forward

Institutional Mechanisms

  • Amend RTI Act Rules to mandate proactive disclosures of international agreements
  • Strengthen Press Information Bureau to provide detailed post-engagement white papers

Media Freedom & Access

  • Regular briefings with on-record government responses
  • Create protected channels for non-partisan journalism

Diplomatic Transparency

  • Publish Annual International Cooperation Report with investments, deals & outcomes
  • Data-driven communication linked to Ease of Doing Business reforms

Conclusion

In the age of instant information, silence is no longer strategic. For a rising global power, withholding positive diplomatic outcomes paradoxically undermines both credibility and public trust. Transparent communication is not a favour — it is a democratic obligation and vital to India’s global leadership aspirations.

Linkage with Syllabus

  • GS-II: Government policies, transparency & accountability, international relations
  • GS-II: Executive-legislative-media interface in governance

Relevant Previous UPSC Mains Questions

  • 2023: “Performance of statutory oversight bodies in India”
  • 2022: “Role of media in strengthening democracy”
  • 2018: “Issues of media regulation and accountability in India”
  • 2015: “Do you agree that the civil society and media are two essential pillars of democracy?”

Introduction

As economic offences become increasingly transnational in nature, India has significantly stepped up its efforts to bring fugitives to justice. Since 2002, 35% of persons extradited or deported to India were accused of economic offences, including major frauds, money laundering, and cheating (RTI Data & MEA responses, 2024–25). The ongoing proceedings to extradite Mehul Choksi — accused in the ₹13,500-crore PNB scam — exemplify India’s pursuit of high-profile absconding economic offenders. India has extradition treaties with 48 countries and extradition arrangements with 12 others (MEA, 2024). Recent court inspections and diplomatic assurances have strengthened India’s credibility, marking a shift toward successful enforcement of accountability across borders.

Body

🔹 Key Trends in India’s Extradition Profile

Type of Offence

Share of Extraditions (2002-2025)

Illustrations

Economic offences

35%

Christian Michel (AgustaWestland), Choksi (proceeding), Mallya & Nirav Modi (pending final outcome)

Terrorism & waging war

27.5%

Tahawwur Rana (26/11 case), Abu Salem (Portugal, earlier period)

Murder/attempt to murder

21.3%

Bilateral transfers from Middle East and U.K.

Others (sexual offences, narcotics, etc.)

16.2%

Multiple cases via UAE & U.S.

  • India submitted 133 extradition requests in last 5 years, with 39 in 2024 alone — highest in the 2020-2024 period (RTI data)
  • Foreign countries submitted 79 requests to India over 2020-24 period
  • Top cooperation sources:
    • UAE (25 cases)
    • S. (12 cases) → Together account for 46% of all extraditions

Challenges Hindering Faster Extraditions

  • Stringent human rights scrutiny by Western courts (concerns over India’s prison conditions)
  • Delay in legal procedures & extensive appeals in host countries
  • Lack of Mutual Legal Assistance efficiency
  • Some offenders obtain alternate citizenships (golden passports) to delay proceedings
  • Political sensitivities when economic offenders have influence abroad
  • Incomplete data in 2019–23 period points to coordination gaps

 

 

 

Way Forward

Reform Area

Policy Actions

Legal Reforms

Faster MLAT responses; streamline documentation; specialised extradition courts

Human Rights Compliance

Improve prison infrastructure & transparent reporting to counter defence arguments

Financial Crime Crackdown

Strengthen Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018; quicker attachment of overseas assets

Diplomatic Muscle

Expand extradition treaties with Europe, Africa, and Latin America

Technology & Tracking

Use INTERPOL notices, biometric data, financial intelligence cooperation

Global Norm Advocacy

Leadership in G20 & FATF to align standards on fugitive economic offenders

Building swift, predictable legal processes is essential to deter future flight.

Conclusion

India’s rising success in extradition — particularly involving high-value economic fugitives — demonstrates growing international confidence in its legal and enforcement systems. However, the complexity of multi-jurisdictional crime necessitates stronger institutional capacity and global partnerships. By improving human rights compliance, enhancing diplomacy, and accelerating legal reforms, India can ensure that those who defraud the public or threaten national security cannot evade justice by crossing borders. This is essential to uphold rule of law, protect the economy, and reinforce India’s image as a credible and responsible global actor.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2: International Relations, Extradition Treaties, Governance Mechanisms
  • GS-3: Money Laundering, Economic Security, Financial Crimes

Relevant PYQs

2023 – Measures to combat fugitive economic offenders

2021 – International cooperation for combatting cross-border economic crimes

2018 – Challenges in bringing global economic offenders to justice

Introduction

India’s Afghanistan policy has historically backed democratic governance, women’s rights, and constitutional order while refusing recognition to extremist regimes. After the Taliban’s return in August 2021, India adopted a cautious approach: closed its embassy, halted development personnel deployment, and relied on humanitarian assistance through the UN. However, recent interactions — including the visit of Acting Taliban FM Amir Khan Muttaqi to India (2025) — signal pragmatic re-engagement driven by concerns over China’s expanding footprint, Pakistan-Taliban dynamics and India’s $3 billion investments in Afghan infrastructure. Yet, gender apartheid, human rights repression, and Taliban links to UN-listed terrorist groups make this engagement highly complex.

Body

🔹 Why India is engaging the Taliban

Strategic Driver

India’s Concern

Terrorism

Prevent resurgence of LeT, JeM, ISKP using Afghan soil to target India

Regional Competition

China’s CPEC extension & mining deals; Pakistan’s historical influence

Protecting Investments

Salma Dam, Parliament Building, Zaranj-Delaram Highway (~$3 bn aid since 2002)

People & Connectivity

Trade via Chabahar; medical aid and scholarships for Afghans

Global South Diplomacy

Maintaining presence in OIC/Heart of Asia politics

India now operates a Technical Mission in Kabul (2022) for humanitarian engagement.

🔻 Risks and Costs

Risk

Implication

Terror & Radicalisation

Taliban’s ISI link may revive anti-India terror networks

Legitimisation of Oppression

Severe curbs on women: Afghanistan ranks lowest in global gender rights indices (UN Women 2024)

Reputation Cost

Contradiction with India’s democratic values & global human rights stance

Domestic Social Discord

Visits like to Deoband used by propaganda groups → communal polarisation

Policy Unpredictability

Taliban factions remain divided; no constitutional framework

Thus, engagement is a high-risk diplomacy requiring constant calibration.

Way Forward

Policy Path

Key Actions

Conditional Engagement

Link cooperation to verifiable commitments against terror

Regional Coordination

Work with Iran–Central Asia–Russia to stabilise supply chains & border security

Humanitarian Plus Model

Continue aid (food, vaccines) but demand girls’ schooling & women’s rights benchmarks

Counter-terror Intelligence

Expand back-channels, use SCO and UN sanctions frameworks

Narrative Management at Home

Prevent misperceptions that polarise communities; counter extremist propaganda

Support Afghan People

Scholarship continuity, safe-passage support for minorities

India must not grant formal recognition until Taliban guarantees anti-terror assurances and human rights protections.

Conclusion

India is navigating a delicate balance between realpolitik and moral responsibility. Engagement with the Taliban is necessary to secure national security interests and maintain regional influence, but blind accommodation risks legitimising a regime that violates fundamental freedoms. India’s strategy must remain principled yet pragmatic, ensuring that Afghanistan does not again become a launchpad of terror and that India’s commitment to women’s rights, minority protection, and democratic values is not compromised. The challenge is to engage without enabling — and to protect India’s security while supporting the Afghan people’s aspirations.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2: India & Neighbourhood; Regional Stability; Terrorism; Human Rights in Foreign Policy
  • GS-3: Internal Security implications (terror financing, radicalisation)

UPSC Previous Year Questions

  • 2023: “India must strike a balance between values and interests in foreign policy.” Discuss.
  • 2021: Afghanistan crisis and India’s security — Examine the challenges.
  • 2017: Counter-terror cooperation in India’s neighborhood — Analyse.

Introduction

ASEAN is central to India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific vision. India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations together account for 25% of the world’s population and ~$5 trillion combined GDP (IMF & MEA, 2024). At the 22nd ASEAN-India Summit in Kuala Lumpur, Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that the partnership continues to make steady progress in an “era of uncertainties”, emerging as a foundation for regional stability, connectivity, and development. India announced 2026 as ASEAN-India Year of Maritime Cooperation, reflecting rising maritime security challenges in the Indo-Pacific. The summit also prioritised digital inclusion, AITIGA review, supply-chain resilience, humanitarian cooperation, and counterterrorism, indicating a deepening strategic and economic relationship.

Body

🔹 Strategic Progress in Key Pillars

Priority Area

Recent Developments

Trade & Investment

AITIGA review underway to improve market access and reduce barriers; bilateral trade $131.3 bn (2023–24) (Ministry of Commerce)

Maritime Security & Indo-Pacific

Naval exercises (MILAN), HADR operations, and cooperation under Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)

Digital Partnership

India’s DPIs and fintech collaboration for digital inclusion

Connectivity

Push to expedite India–Myanmar–Thailand Highway and Kaladan project

Counterterrorism

Joint Working Groups and intelligence sharing against transnational threats

Cultural Diplomacy

Buddhism circuit tourism, student exchanges strengthening people-to-people links

🔻 Persistent Challenges

  • Trade gap: India faces persistent deficit with ASEAN
  • Chinese strategic footprint in the region complicates India’s influence
  • Slow infrastructure execution in connectivity projects
  • Political instability in Myanmar affecting Act East corridors
  • Divergence on South China Sea positions impacts maritime alignment

Despite these, ASEAN sees India as a trusted democratic partner in a competitive Indo-Pacific environment.

Way Forward

Reform Focus

Action Required

Trade Modernisation

Conclude AITIGA review with rules-based and fair tariff arrangements; promote CEPA-like agreements with major ASEAN economies

Strategic Maritime Cooperation

More joint patrols, MDA sharing, shipbuilding partnerships

Accelerated Connectivity

Time-bound completion of IMT Highway; expand aviation and coastal shipping links

Global South Collaboration

Joint climate finance and food security initiatives at G20, EAS platforms

Technology & Education

Indian STEM scholarships; Digital Public Infrastructure partnerships

Disaster & Health Security

Institutionalise HADR drills and supply chain emergency mechanisms

Engagement must blend economic pragmatism with strategic trust-building.

Conclusion

India–ASEAN ties demonstrate continuity and growth amid disruptions from pandemic aftermath, regional conflicts, and supply chain fragmentation. The partnership’s success lies in shared values, maritime centrality, and a joint commitment to a stable, multipolar Indo-Pacific. Strengthening connectivity, securing sea lanes, and fostering economic diversification will shape the trajectory ahead. With ASEAN as a “cultural partner” and collaborator in the Global South, India must sustain high-level engagement and practical cooperation to ensure this 21st century truly becomes the century of India and ASEAN, as articulated by the Prime Minister.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2: India & Neighbourhood; Regional Organizations (ASEAN); Act East Policy
  • GS-3: Maritime Security; Trade & Logistics Resilience

UPSC Previous Year Questions

  • 2023: Indo-Pacific multipolarity and India’s maritime strategy — Discuss.
  • 2021: Role of ASEAN in India’s foreign policy — Analyse.
  • 2016: India-ASEAN free trade architecture and its strategic interests — Examine.

Introduction

The 20th East Asia Summit in Kuala Lumpur highlighted the reshaping of global order by simultaneous conflicts — the Russia–Ukraine war and the renewed hostilities in Gaza. India, while advocating peace and diplomacy, stressed the global economic spillovers of prolonged conflicts — especially food insecurity, disrupted energy flows, and supply chain instability. With import dependency of over 85% on crude oil (PPAC, 2024) and major exposure to West Asian maritime routes, India’s security and economic resilience are closely tied to regional stability. External Affairs Minister Dr. S. Jaishankar reiterated India’s support for the Gaza peace initiative and early resolution of the Ukraine conflict, emphasizing the need for a growing multipolar world order and reliable access to global markets.

Body

🔹 India’s Position: Principles & Pragmatism

  • Advocates “immediate de-escalation and diplomacy” in both conflicts
  • Supports two-state solution and humanitarian corridors in Gaza (UNGA voting record)
  • Calls for respect for sovereignty and UN Charter in Ukraine while balancing ties with Russia

🔹 Energy & Food Security Concerns

  • Russia–Ukraine war triggered
    • ~60% rise in global wheat prices in 2022
    • Shipping risks in Black Sea affecting fertilizer flows
  • S. secondary sanctions on Russian crude challenge India’s discounted oil procurement
  • West Asia crisis jeopardizes Indo-Pacific trade corridors and SLOCs

🔹 India’s Strategic Autonomy

  • Interaction with U.S. (Marco Rubio) underscores uneasy energy/trade landscape under U.S. tariff pressures
  • Maintains crucial defence & nuclear cooperation with Russia
  • Avoids taking bloc positions → retains room for diplomacy in Global South leadership

🔹 Indo-Pacific & ASEAN Engagement

  • Advocates maritime security, resilient supply chains, and disaster response cooperation
  • Promotes ASEAN centrality aligned with Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)

India positions itself as a credible mediator committed to peace without compromising national interests.

Way Forward

Priority

Key Action

Strengthen energy resilience

Diversify crude import basket; expand SPR capacity; promote green hydrogen

Food & fertilizer security

Secure long-term wheat/ammonia supply lines with friendly nations

Maritime diplomacy

Enhance cooperation with ASEAN on safe sea lanes (Malacca, Hormuz)

Global South consensus building

Leverage G20 legacy for humanitarian & reconstruction frameworks

Multipolar governance

Support UN reforms; build trusted middle-power coalitions

Economic risk hedging

Secure rupee-based trade and currency swap lines

India must balance moral positioning with strategic autonomy to navigate fluid global geopolitics.

Conclusion

India’s calibrated approach to the Gaza and Ukraine crises reflects its commitment to peace, sovereignty, and humanitarian principles, while safeguarding energy security and economic interests. As multipolarity deepens and great-power rivalry intensifies, India’s voice for equitable supply chains, inclusive global governance, and Indo-Pacific stability gains increasing relevance. Effective diplomacy and maritime cooperation with ASEAN and the Global South will help India shape emerging global rules, cementing its role as a responsible and influential actor in world affairs.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2: International Relations, Multilateralism, India’s Foreign Policy
  • GS-3: Energy Security, Trade & Logistics

UPSC Previous Year Questions

  • 2023: “India’s foreign policy has become more pragmatic than idealist.” Discuss.
  • 2021: India’s energy security challenges in geopolitically unstable regions — Analyse.
  • 2017: Multipolarity and India’s strategic autonomy — Examine.

Introduction

ASEAN and China signed the upgraded ACFTA 3.0 during the ASEAN Summit in Kuala Lumpur (2025), expanding the original FTA that came into force in 2010. ASEAN remains China’s largest trading partner, with $771 billion bilateral trade in 2024 (ASEAN Secretariat). The 3.0 version focuses on digital economy, pharmaceuticals, green transition, supply chain integration, and services liberalization—reflecting a shift toward next-generation trade norms. The agreement is also a response to intensifying U.S. tariff policies, aimed at diversifying China’s export markets amid geopolitical rivalry. Its operationalization strengthens China’s role in Southeast Asia and reshapes Indo-Pacific economic dynamics, including implications for India’s Act East Policy and trade competitiveness.

Body

🔹 Geostrategic and Economic Significance

  • Supports China’s counter-tariff strategy amid U.S. trade restrictions
  • Enhances industrial interdependence and supply chain security
  • Strengthens Beijing’s influence in ASEAN’s $3.8 trillion GDP regional market
  • Complementary with RCEP—covering one-third of global GDP and population
  • Showcases China’s push to lead in digital standards, green technology, pharmaceuticals

Singapore termed the upgrade as unlocking “future growth areas,” while Malaysia and Indonesia expect deeper infrastructure linkages under BRI + ACFTA synergies.

🔻 Challenges & Criticisms

  • Despite claims of openness, China maintains export controls on critical minerals
  • Concerns over trade asymmetry—China runs surpluses with most ASEAN states
  • S.–China rivalry makes ASEAN’s neutrality harder to sustain
  • Rules-of-origin and data governance compliance may burden smaller economies
  • Some analysts argue ACFTA 3.0 is weaker than high-standard FTAs like CPTPP due to competing national interests

For China, the agreement is part of a wider strategy to retain economic centrality in Asia despite decoupling pressures.

Way Forward

🔹 Implications and Opportunities for India & Strategy Needed

Opportunity

Strategic Response Needed

Intensifying ASEAN–China supply chains

Faster delivery of IMT Highway, Kaladan Project

ASEAN digital & green integration

Offer collaboration through Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative

Competitiveness challenge for Indian exports

Accelerate India–ASEAN FTA (AITIGA) review

Market access shifts in agriculture & pharma

Align quality standards, promote value-addition

China shaping Indo-Pacific rules

Strengthen QUAD–ASEAN convergence with developmental focus

India must promote a trust-based alternative, leveraging resilient supply chains, digital public infrastructure, and Global South cooperation. Economic diplomacy must match China’s speed and financing strength.

Conclusion

ACFTA 3.0 reinforces China’s geoeconomic footprint in Southeast Asia and consolidates its role in Indo-Pacific trade governance amid escalating tariff conflicts led by the U.S. While it improves ASEAN’s connectivity and market access, deepening asymmetries and strategic competition cannot be ignored. For India, the development is a reminder to enhance high-level participation, economic integration, and connectivity with ASEAN to protect long-term interests. A rules-based, multipolar Indo-Pacific requires India to remain an active architect — not a distant observer — in regional trade frameworks.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2: Regional Groupings, Economic Diplomacy, India & ASEAN
  • GS-3: External Trade, Globalization, Industrial Competitiveness

Relevant UPSC PYQs

  • 2023: Indo-Pacific multipolarity and India’s regional role — Discuss.
  • 2020: Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and their impact on India’s global economic position — Examine.

2016: ASEAN’s significance for India’s strategic interests — Analyse

Introduction

India and the European Union share a strategic partnership rooted in democratic values, sustainability priorities, and economic complementarity. The EU is India’s 3rd largest trading partner after the U.S. and UAE, accounting for ~11% of India’s global trade and FDI inflows worth €90+ billion since 2000 (Commerce Ministry, 2024). Negotiations for a comprehensive India–EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA) restarted in 2022 after a decade-long pause. Recent meetings in Brussels (Jan 2025) between Union Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal and EU Commissioner Maroš Šefčovič significantly narrowed the gap on outstanding issues, with both sides agreeing to fast-track technical tariff negotiations during the high-level EU visit to New Delhi. A successful agreement would deepen geo-economic ties and strengthen India’s Indo-Pacific engagement.

Body

🔹 Strategic and Economic Importance

  • Enhances India’s access to a high-income consumer market of 450+ million people
  • Supports supply-chain diversification amid China-plus-One strategy
  • Boosts automobiles, pharma, textiles, IT, agri exports
  • Collaboration on green economy, clean technology, semiconductors
  • Aligns with India’s Viksit Bharat @2047 and EU’s Global Gateway Strategy

🔻 Key Concerns and Negotiation Challenges

Issue

Indian Concerns

EU Position

Tariffs on automobiles & spirits

Protect India’s manufacturing & MSMEs

Seek significant tariff cuts

Agricultural market access

Farmers’ income, food security

Wants reduced duties, wider access

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

Affects steel, aluminium → export costs rise €1 billion+/yr

EU insists on green compliance

Services trade

Mobility for IT professionals, data flows

Regulatory barriers remain

Sustainability & labour standards

Fear of non-tariff barriers

EU emphasises ESG compliance

Regulatory anxieties also persist around investment protection, IPR, and government procurement rules.

Despite progress, both sides recognize the need for political balancing to achieve a “win-win” outcome.

Way Forward

Strategic Area

Recommended Measures

Balanced Tariff Schedule

Gradual liberalisation with safeguard clauses for sensitive sectors

CBAM Transition Support

EU financial + tech assistance for green steel and renewables

Services Gains

Enhanced visa quotas, recognition of qualifications, mobility agreements

Standards Harmonisation

Secure India’s regulatory autonomy while complying with WTO rules

Investment & Technology Cooperation

Deepen ties in EV batteries, digital trade, cybersecurity, AI

Farmer Protection

Domestic infrastructure support + value-chain upgrading

India must ensure inclusive trade benefits across workers, MSMEs, and small farmers while leveraging access to advanced European markets.

Conclusion

A robust India–EU FTA has the potential to reshape India’s position in the global value chain architecture. The recent diplomatic momentum builds optimism, but sensitive tariff schedules, regulatory compliance, and climate policies must be resolved with pragmatism. Negotiations should strike a balance between market access and domestic interests, ensuring that the partnership enables sustainable growth, resilient supply chains, and a rules-based Indo-Pacific. A fair and forward-looking agreement can unlock immense strategic dividends for both economies in the coming decades.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2 → Bilateral relations; Economic diplomacy
  • GS-3 → External sector; Trade agreements; Industrial competitiveness

Relevant UPSC PYQs

  • 2023: India’s external trade relations in an emerging multipolar world — Analyse.
  • 2020: Bilateral trade agreements and their economic implications for India — Examine.
  • 2016: The EU’s significance for India’s strategic and economic partnership — Discuss.

 

Introduction

India’s strategic partnership with ASEAN is a cornerstone of the Act East Policy (2014) and Indo-Pacific Vision. With over USD 131 billion bilateral trade in 2023-24 (Ministry of Commerce) and 21% of India’s merchandise trade routed through the region, ASEAN is central to India’s economic security, maritime connectivity, and supply-chain diversification. India became a Dialogue Partner in 1995, upgraded to Summit-level in 2002, reflecting deepening ties. ASEAN’s centrality in regional architecture – East Asia Summit, RCEP, ADMM-Plus – offers India presence in a dynamic geopolitical theatre facing challenges from U.S.–China rivalry, Taiwan Strait tensions, and South China Sea militarisation. Therefore, high-level engagement at such Summits has direct consequences for India’s strategic influence.

Body

The 2024 ASEAN-India Summit and East Asia Summit coincided with major geopolitical disruptions – U.S. tariff escalations, China’s technology export curbs, and maritime disputes. India reaffirmed support to ASEAN Outlook on Indo-Pacific (AOIP) and proposed 2026 as ASEAN-India Maritime Cooperation Year focusing on HADR, blue economy, maritime security, and supply chain resilience. Both sides also committed to fast-tracking the review of AITIGA to correct trade imbalances (India’s trade deficit with ASEAN: USD 43 bn in FY 2024).

However, Prime Minister’s absence for the second time since 2022 diluted diplomatic messaging. Unlike U.S., China, Russia whose leaders attended personally, India was represented by the External Affairs Minister. This raises concerns about policy signalling:

Missed Diplomacy Advantages

·        Lobbying against China-led initiatives & RCEP influence

·        Shaping maritime governance & digital connectivity

·        Accelerating defence cooperation (ASI, logistics pacts)

·        Strengthening support in South China Sea & Myanmar issues

·        Advancing trade & mobility projects like IMT Highway

Speculations over domestic political schedule, bilateral sensitivities with Malaysia, or India-U.S. trade friction overshadowed strategic optics. ASEAN partners value leader-level presence as commitment to regional stability.

India risks creating a perception gap vis-à-vis China’s assertive diplomacy—over USD 240 bn investments under BRI in ASEAN dwarfs India’s limited developmental footprint.

Way Forward

Priority

Key Measures

High-level Political Engagement

Annual PM-level participation must be institutionalised

Economic Deepening

Conclude AITIGA review; expand digital economy, EV supply chains

Maritime & Defence Cooperation

Joint patrols, submarine rescue agreements, QUAD-ASEAN linkages

Connectivity Architecture

Speed up India-Myanmar-Thailand (IMT) Highway, Kaladan Project

Soft-power Diplomacy

Cultural exchanges, student mobility, tourism visa reforms

Counterbalance China

More line of credit financing, value-chain relocation incentives

India should align ASEAN ties with IMEC, Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative, and Sagarmala for region-wide maritime corridors.

Conclusion

ASEAN is not merely a regional grouping but a gateway to the Indo-Pacific power matrix. Absence at crucial strategic forums can inadvertently reduce India’s diplomatic capital at a time when global powers are intensifying engagement. To uphold ASEAN centrality and advance Viksit Bharat @2047 ambitions, India must pursue consistent leadership-level diplomacy, deeper economic integration, and maritime defence cooperation. A proactive ASEAN strategy will ensure India is not just present, but influential, in shaping a stable and rules-based Indo-Pacific.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS-2: International Organisations, Regional Groupings, India’s Bilateral & Multilateral Relations
  • GS-3: Maritime Security, Blue Economy (auxiliary relevance)

Relevant UPSC PYQs

  • 2023: India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific vision — Examine their synergy.
  • 2020: Evaluate India-ASEAN economic ties in the changing geopolitical context.
  • 2016: ASEAN’s significance for India’s strategic interests — Discuss.

Introduction

India and Norway—two major ocean nations—are emerging as global partners in the green maritime transition. The collaboration aligns with India’s Maritime India Vision 2030 and Norway’s Ocean Strategy 2030, both seeking sustainable ocean management and emission-free shipping. The signing of the India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) in 2025 further institutionalises this cooperation across trade, technology, and climate domains.

Body

  1. 1. Background and Evolution of the Partnership
  • India–Norway Ocean Dialogue (2019) and Joint Task Force on Blue Economy established frameworks for sustainable ocean governance, ship recycling, and marine-pollution mitigation.
  • 10th Joint Working Group on Maritime Cooperation (2025) in Mumbai focused on green shipping, maritime training, security, and gender inclusion.
  • India’s participation in Nor-Shipping 2025 (Oslo) showcased its technological, digital, and ship-building capacity.

Fact Check (Government Data, 2025):

  • India’s maritime sector contributes ~7% of GDP and handles 95% of trade by volume (Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways – MoPSW Annual Report 2024-25).
  • Norway aims to cut domestic-shipping emissions by 50% by 2030 (from 2005 levels) and has deployed the world’s first autonomous zero-emission container ship – Yara Birkeland.
  1. 2. Strategic and Economic Significance

Dimension

Key Contributions

Green Shipping & Technology

Collaboration on hydrogen & ammonia fuels, electric vessels, and port decarbonisation corridors.

Shipbuilding & Recycling

Norwegian orders ≈ 10% built in India (e.g., 14 vessels from Cochin Shipyard for Wilson ASA); India a global leader in eco-friendly ship-recycling (Alang).

Skill Development & Seafarers

Indian seafarers constitute ≈ 20% of global crew (Directorate General of Shipping 2024); Norway provides training & on-board opportunities under TEPA.

Trade Boost through TEPA

Expected to increase India-EFTA trade by USD 100 billion within a decade; includes maritime R&D and services integration.

This partnership strengthens India’s role in Indo-Nordic innovation networks and supports Aatmanirbhar Bharat through technology transfer and investment.

  1. 3. Environmental and Social Dimensions
  • Blue Economy Goals: Sustainable fisheries, marine biodiversity, and circular ship recycling.
  • Gender Inclusion: Norway’s “Maritime SheEO” initiative (supported since 2019) and India’s “Women in Marine Sector 2024” programme advance women’s participation in shipping.
  • Climate Leadership: Both nations back IMO’s Net-Zero 2050 Framework and Green Shipping Corridors initiative.

Data (UN ESCAP 2025): Shipping accounts for ~3% of global GHG emissions; green corridor investments could reduce India’s maritime carbon intensity by 30% by 2030.

Way Forward

  1. Operationalise India-Norway Green Shipping Corridor (linking Mumbai – Oslo – Rotterdam).
  2. Joint R&D Fund for hydrogen fuel cells and retrofit technologies under the National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023).
  3. Expand shipbuilding MSME clusters in Cochin, Visakhapatnam, and Gujarat with Nordic investment.
  4. Strengthen Blue Finance via sovereign green bonds and EFTA fund participation.
  5. Institutionalise Skill Mobility Pact for Indian cadets and women seafarers.

Conclusion

The India–Norway maritime partnership exemplifies how climate diplomacy and economic cooperation can converge. By integrating green technology, inclusive workforce policies, and sustainable ocean governance, the two countries are steering global shipping toward a net-zero and equitable future. As India pursues Maritime Vision 2030 and Amrit Kaal 2047, partnerships like this will be crucial in realising a Sagar Shakti that is blue, green and resilient.

“From the fjords of Norway to the coasts of India, the waves of cooperation can propel a sustainable future.”

Linkage with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II: India’s bilateral relations – Nordic countries; International agreements on environment.
  • GS Paper III: Infrastructure – Ports & Shipping; Environment – Climate change and clean technology.

Relevant PYQs

  • GS-II (2023): “India’s engagement with small but strategic European nations and its impact on maritime security.”
  • GS-III (2021): “Discuss the challenges in achieving blue-economy goals and their linkage with sustainable development.”
  • GS-III (2019): “Describe measures taken by India for sustainable management of ocean resources.”

Introduction

India–U.S. relations constitute one of the world’s most consequential strategic partnerships, driven by converging interests in trade, technology, and Indo-Pacific security. The U.S. is India’s top trading partner with bilateral goods trade reaching USD 128.5 billion in FY 2023-24 (Source: Ministry of Commerce & Industry, 2024). However, economic cooperation has become increasingly intertwined with geopolitical concerns, as reflected in U.S. President Donald Trump’s recent remarks linking trade deals with India and Pakistan conflict dynamics.

Body

  1. 1. Trade Relationship: Progress and Irritants

Area

Progress

Challenges

Tariffs & Market Access

Restoration of GSP-like negotiations under Trade Policy Forum

U.S. tariffs on steel (25%) & aluminium (10%); India’s retaliatory duties

Critical & Emerging Tech

iCET initiative (2023) on semiconductors, AI, quantum

U.S. restrictions on dual-use tech; visa caps impact services exports

Energy Trade

U.S. among top oil, gas suppliers

Tariffs linked to Russian crude procurement

Digital Trade & Data

Collaboration on trusted telecom, 5G-6G

Divergences on data localisation & Big Tech regulation

Both sides aim for a “limited trade package”, but talks remain stalled amid new tariff frictions.

  1. 2. Geopolitics Intersecting Trade

Trump claimed that:

  • Trade leverage was used to de-escalate India–Pakistan tensions during a border flare-up.
  • S. tariffs (50% + 25%) were imposed in response to India’s Russian oil imports.

Such statements:

  • Undermine diplomatic agency of India and Pakistan.
  • Attempt to convert a rules-based trade partnership into a transactional one.
  • Reflect Washington’s strategic need to limit Chinese influence in Asia while pressuring India to align with Western partners.

India maintains a policy of non-alignment 2.0 – balancing strategic partnerships without compromising sovereignty.

  1. 3. India’s Strategic Autonomy: A Core Principle

India rejects any external mediation on Kashmir (1972 Shimla Agreement; 1999 Lahore Declaration).

  • Continues independent energy policy — Russian oil share ~35% of India’s crude imports in 2024.
  • Expands Quad cooperation with the U.S. but:
    • Maintains BRICS, SCO, and Global South leadership.
    • Advocates multipolarity in global order.

Thus, India engages deeply with the U.S. while resisting intervention narratives.

Way Forward

  1. Conclude a balanced trade pact
    • Address tariffs, agriculture access, medical devices
  2. Technology & supply chain partnership
    • Joint semiconductor ecosystem & trusted telecom (5G-6G)
  3. Insulate trade from political linkages
    • De-risk cooperation from domestic rhetoric
  4. Institutionalised conflict-resolution mechanisms
    • Revitalize Trade Policy Forum, Commercial Dialogue
  5. Enhance Indo-Pacific Security Collaboration
    • Maritime domain awareness & logistics support

Conclusion

India–U.S. trade relations remain resilient due to strong economic complementarities and shared Indo-Pacific interests. While political rhetoric in Washington may occasionally strain ties, India upholds strategic autonomy and issue-based partnerships. A forward-looking, rules-based trade agreement can anchor this partnership and contribute to regional stability and economic growth.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II → Bilateral relations, Foreign policy, India’s interests abroad, Global governance

Past PYQs Referenced

  • GS-II (2023): “India’s foreign policy challenges in the changing world order”
  • GS-II (2021): “Transactional vs values-based partnerships”
  • GS-II (2019): “Changing dynamics of India–U.S. relations”
  • GS-II (2017): “India’s role in multipolar Asia”

Introduction

India has historically been a major development partner for Afghanistan, having invested over USD 3 billion in infrastructure, health, and education projects since 2001 (MEA). Despite the takeover by the Taliban in 2021, India has maintained a cautious yet functional engagement, prioritising humanitarian needs, regional stability, and connectivity. The recent announcement by the Ministry of External Affairs expressing willingness to support hydroelectric projects in Afghanistan signals a calibrated diplomatic shift.

  • Rationale Behind Hydropower Cooperation
  • Humanitarian and development imperatives
    – Afghanistan’s electricity deficit is severe; only around 35% of the population has reliable power access (World Bank 2023).
    – Hydropower is key to sustainable rural development and energy security.
  • Existing history of cooperation
    – India previously assisted in Salma Dam (Afghan-India Friendship Dam), Transmission networks, and drinking water supply projects.
  • Strategic positioning in regional geopolitics
    – Prevents a strategic vacuum that could be exploited by Pakistan and China under BRI and CPEC expansions.
    – Water infrastructure becomes a confidence-building measure toward a more stable neighbourhood.
  • Support for Afghan sovereignty
    – India reiterated commitment to Afghanistan’s territorial integrity, significant given Pakistan’s cross-border strikes along the Durand Line.
  • Implications for India’s Interests
  • Geopolitical Stability in the Indo-Iran-Afghanistan region
    – Stable Afghanistan contributes to counter-terrorism and curbing narcotics movement impacting India.
  • Connectivity and Trade Opportunities
    – Complements India’s investment in Chabahar Port for access to Central Asia bypassing Pakistan.
  • Reinforcement of a People-Centred Approach
    – India has continued supply of 40,000 MT of wheat, medicines, and vaccines post-2021.
    – Hydropower cooperation supports livelihood creation amidst humanitarian crisis.
  • Soft Power and Diplomatic Leverage
    – Builds goodwill among Afghan communities, especially when many international actors have disengaged.
  • Challenges and Constraints
  • Taliban’s international legitimacy remains contested; India has not formally recognised the regime.
    • Security risks for Indian workers and assets remain high due to militant presence (ISIS-K, factions of TTP).
    • Regional geopolitics: Pakistan may perceive hydel cooperation as reducing its leverage over Kabul’s energy and water dependencies.
    • Financing issues given Afghanistan’s collapsed banking and governance mechanisms.
    • Human rights and inclusivity concerns including women’s rights limit deeper cooperation.
  • Way Forward
  • Continue calibrated engagement — humanitarian-led, infrastructure-linked, rights-conscious.
    • Evaluate hydropower potential jointly through expert delegations and feasibility studies.
    • Encourage cooperation via regional platforms such as SCO and UN-mandated humanitarian channels.
    • Focus on community-based energy projects in safe zones to avoid deployment vulnerabilities.
    • Ensure project conditionalities include inclusive governance and protection of minorities.

Conclusion

India’s willingness to support hydropower development in Afghanistan signals strategic pragmatism — safeguarding regional stability, people-to-people ties, and long-term connectivity goals despite political complexities. Sustainable engagement can strengthen Afghanistan’s sovereignty while preserving India’s role as a reliable development partner. The challenge lies in balancing humanitarian commitment with security and normative concerns, ensuring outcomes consistent with India’s foreign policy principles and national interests.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II – India’s neighbourhood policy | International relations | Regional cooperation
    • GS Paper III – Energy infrastructure | Sustainable development

Previous Years’ Mains Question Linkages

  • 2023 – India’s role as a stabilising force in the region
    • 2019 – India–Afghanistan relations: strategic and developmental partnership
    • 2016 – Connectivity initiatives and regional diplomacy

Introduction

The Trump-Xi summit in Busan (2025) marked a shift in major power relations, with restoration of a cooperative tone and tariff reduction. The U.S. cut tariffs on China to 47%, leaving India and Brazil still facing 50% tariffs — among the highest in U.S. trade policy. More importantly, the revival of the “G-2” idea — suggesting shared U.S.–China global stewardship — raises concerns for India’s strategic positioning, multilateral influence, and Indo-Pacific partnerships including the Quad.

  • G-2 Dynamics and Implications for India
  • Strategic Marginalisation
    – India advocates multi-polarity, not bipolar condominium.
    – A U.S.–China duopoly could reduce India’s role in global governance including supply chains, technology standards and maritime security.
  • Impact on the Quad and Indo-Pacific Strategy
    – Possible dilution of Quad’s vision of a Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP).
    – Reports indicate uncertainty around Quad Summits in 2025, affecting momentum in maritime cooperation, critical technologies, and HADR operations.
  • Trade and Economic Fallout
    – India’s rising exports face disadvantage if U.S.–China tariff easing redirects supply chains back to China.
    – India-U.S. trade hit USD 128 billion in 2023-24 (USTR); tariff divergence could widen trade imbalance.
    – China controlling 90% of rare earth processing complicates tech security and strategic industries (International Energy Agency).
  • Regional Security Concerns
    – Potential “spheres of influence” weaken India’s strategic space in South Asia and Indian Ocean Region.
    – A softer U.S. approach may embolden Chinese assertiveness at LAC, where India faces persistent military pressure since 2020.
  • Diplomatic Signalling
    – MEA’s cautious response reflects uncertainty regarding the depth and longevity of U.S.–China engagement.
  • Opportunities for India
  • Economic leverage with Global South
    – India can reinforce leadership through forums like G20 Troika, IPEF, BIMSTEC, ISA.
    • Strategic hedging
    – Maintain robust ties with the U.S. while preserving space for calibrated engagement with China (e.g., BRICS, SCO).
    • Self-reliance and supply chain diversification
    – Faster execution of PLI schemes, semiconductor mission, and critical minerals strategy reduce dependencies.
  • Way Forward
  • Strengthen Indo-Pacific coalitions beyond Quad
    – Expand partnerships with France, Indonesia, UAE on maritime security, defence logistics and blue economy.
    • Accelerate border infrastructure and defence modernisation
    – Focus on Vibrant Villages Programme, ISR capabilities and cybersecurity.
    • Trade competitiveness reforms
    – Harmonise tariffs, improve logistics, and integrate with global value chains through FTAs (U.K., EU).
    • Enhance India’s narrative leadership
    – Champion multipolarity and Global South development priorities at UN, WTO reform forums.

Conclusion

The U.S.–China thaw represents neither stability nor predictability for India. While cooperation between two major powers can reduce global economic uncertainty, an exclusive G-2 framework risks undermining India’s strategic autonomy and Indo-Pacific ambitions. India must pursue a calibrated response — strengthening its economic resilience, expanding partnerships, and reinforcing a rules-based regional order. The future of Asia will depend not on bilateral great-power bargains, but on an inclusive and truly multipolar architecture where India remains a pivotal actor.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II: International Relations, Global groupings, India’s foreign policy, Indo-Pacific
    • GS Paper III: Economic security, Technology, Trade policy

Linked Previous Years’ Mains Questions

  • 2023 – Quad’s role in shaping Indo-Pacific strategic balance
    • 2022 – India-U.S. partnership and China factor
    • 2019 – Multipolarity vs bipolarity in global politics

Introduction

Chabahar Port in Iran is India’s first overseas port development initiative and a crucial component of its connectivity with Afghanistan and Central Asia. With the United States granting a six-month waiver from sanctions in October 2025, India’s operations at the Shahid Beheshti terminal can continue without legal or financial disruptions. The move reinforces the port’s importance for India’s strategic autonomy, humanitarian engagement, and regional economic integration.

  • Strategic Significance
  • Provides India direct access to Afghanistan and Central Asia by bypassing Pakistan’s land blockade.
    • Supports India’s long-term vision of a secure and multipolar Eurasian order under “Extended Neighbourhood Policy”.
    • Strengthens International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC), reducing shipping time to Europe by nearly 40% (MoCI data).
    • Enhances India’s strategic presence in the western Indian Ocean and counterbalances the China-Pakistan nexus around Gwadar Port.
    • Facilitates defence logistics and maritime security cooperation with regional partners.
  • Economic and Connectivity Dimensions
  • Port capacity expansion under India-Iran partnership envisions 2.5 million TEUs annually (Iran Port and Maritime Organization).
    • Critical for energy, minerals, and fertilizer imports from Iran and Afghanistan, enhancing supply-chain resilience.
    • Promotes Sagarmala and PM Gati Shakti goals by integrating India into trans-Asian multimodal connectivity corridors.
    • Encourages Indian private sector participation in logistics, warehousing, and transit trade infrastructure.
  • Humanitarian and Regional Stability Role
  • Serves as a lifeline for the Afghan population facing economic collapse and food insecurity.
    • India has routed over 85,000 MT of wheat and essential medicines to Afghanistan through Chabahar since 2022 (MEA).
    • Aligns with UN humanitarian mandates and supports regional peace efforts.
    • Helps maintain people-to-people linkages with Afghan society despite political uncertainties.
  • Diplomatic and Security Considerations
  • Waiver reflects recognition of India’s constructive role in regional stability.
    • Enables calibrated engagement with both Iran and the United States, reinforcing India’s strategic autonomy.
    • Creates a counterweight to Chinese dominance via Belt and Road Initiative in Indian Ocean Region.
  • Major Challenges
  • Uncertainty over future U.S. sanction policies deters long-term investment and private participation.
    • Political and economic instability in Iran and lack of formal recognition of the Taliban limit expansion potential.
    • Banking and insurance restrictions impede smooth cargo movement.
    • Competing infrastructure, especially Gwadar Port, challenges commercial viability without accelerated development.
  • Way Forward
  • Institutionalise a long-term sanction-shielded framework through sustained high-level diplomacy.
    • Expedite completion of Chabahar–Zahedan Railway to link directly with INSTC and Central Asian markets.
    • Expand the scope of cargo from humanitarian needs to broader commercial exchanges.
    • Establish a dedicated India-Iran Chabahar Economic Authority for faster decision-making.
    • Enhance trilateral coordination among India, Iran, and Afghanistan (as political conditions evolve).

Conclusion

Chabahar Port is crucial not only for India’s strategic outreach but also for regional humanitarian access and economic stability. The U.S. waiver has revived its prospects at a critical moment, but durability of gains depends on India’s ability to secure predictable diplomatic arrangements and operational efficiency. Effective execution can turn Chabahar into a cornerstone of India’s Eurasian connectivity doctrine and an instrument of regional peace.

Syllabus Mapping (GS Paper II)

  • India and neighbourhood relations
    • Bilateral and regional connectivity agreements
    • Impact of U.S. foreign policy on India’s interests

Linked Previous Year Questions

  • 2023 – India’s role as a net security provider in Indo-Pacific Region
    • 2020 – Strategic importance of West Asia for India
    • 2018 – INSTC and India’s connectivity diplomacy
    • 2016 – Port-led growth and maritime strategy

Introduction

  • Chabahar Port, located on Iran’s southeastern coast, is India’s first foreign port development project and a vital component of India’s regional connectivity strategy.
    • In October 2025, the United States granted India a six-month waiver to continue operations at Chabahar despite sanctions under the Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act (IFCA).
    • This reinforces India’s strategic autonomy and strengthens humanitarian access to Afghanistan.
  • Importance for India
  • Facilitates direct access to Afghanistan and Central Asia bypassing Pakistan’s territory.
    • India has supplied more than 85,000 MT of wheat and critical medicines to Afghanistan via Chabahar (MEA, 2022–24).
    • Strengthens the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) linking India with Russia and Europe, potentially reducing freight time and logistics cost nearly by 40% (Ministry of Commerce).
    • Enhances energy and mineral security, including access to Afghanistan’s lithium and Iran’s hydrocarbons.
    • Expands India’s strategic presence in the India–West Asia–Eurasia geopolitical corridor.
  • Economic and Commercial Opportunities
  • Chabahar Free Trade Zone development is projected to handle up to 2.5 million TEUs annually as per Iranian port authorities.
    • Complements India’s port-led development vision under the Sagarmala Programme and PM Gati Shakti.
    • Enhances regional supply chains for fertilizers, metals, and construction materials.
    • Potential for Indian private sector participation in logistics, warehousing, and transshipment hubs.
  • Humanitarian and Security Significance
  • Ensures continuity of food and medical supplies to Afghanistan in alignment with UN humanitarian principles.
    • Counters the China-Pakistan strategic axis, especially given Gwadar Port’s proximity (around 170 km away).
    • Reinforces India’s commitment to being a net security provider in the region.
    • Offers a stable route to landlocked Central Asia amid turbulence in Pakistan and instability in Afghan transit routes.
  • Challenges and Limitations
  • U.S. policy unpredictability erodes investor confidence and slows infrastructure expansion.
    • Political volatility in Iran and concerns related to its nuclear programme complicate engagement.
    • Lack of formal diplomatic recognition of the Taliban government makes long-term trade contracts difficult.
    • China’s investments in Gwadar and broader BRI frameworks exert competitive pressure.
    • Financial and banking connectivity issues delay cargo processing and payment mechanisms.
  • Way Forward
  • Pursue a long-term exemption framework through sustained diplomatic dialogue with the U.S.
    • Accelerate the Chabahar–Zahedan railway to enable seamless link with INSTC and Central Asian trade corridors.
    • Diversify port usage beyond humanitarian cargo into commercial shipments.
    • Establish a Chabahar Special Purpose Vehicle for quick decisions, private participation and credit flow.
    • Strengthen trilateral cooperation with Iran and Russia and explore coordinated approaches with Central Asian Republics.

Conclusion

  • The waiver marks global acknowledgement of Chabahar’s importance for stability and prosperity in Afghanistan and the extended neighbourhood.
    • As geopolitical competition intensifies between India and the BRI model, Chabahar can emerge as a cornerstone of India’s Eurasian connectivity and maritime strategy.
    • Timely execution and multilateral cooperation are essential to transform its strategic potential into durable regional influence.

Syllabus Mapping (GS-II)

  • Bilateral, regional and global grouping and agreements
    • India and its neighbourhood relations
    • Effect of policies of developed countries (U.S. sanctions) on India’s interests

Previous Years’ Mains Question Linkages

  • 2023: India as a net security provider in the Indo-Pacific
    • 2020: Strategic importance of West Asia for India
    • 2018: INSTC and India’s connectivity diplomacy
    • 2016: Maritime infrastructure and port-led growth in India

Introduction:

Trade relations between India and the United States—two of the world’s largest democracies—have been under strain following the imposition of a 25% tariff plus penalties on Indian exports by the U.S. administration. This comes despite India ranking only 10th on the list of countries with which the U.S. has the highest trade deficit. Such disproportionate tariff treatment, particularly when compared with nations having larger trade deficits and lower U.S. tariffs, has raised concerns about the strategic direction and fairness of U.S. trade policy.

Body:

  1. Disproportionate Tariffs vs. Trade Deficit Rankings:
  • According to Rubix Data Sciences (2025):
    • S. trade deficit with India: $49.5 billion (10th highest).
    • S. imposes a 25%+ tariff on Indian goods — 3rd highest among top deficit countries.
  • In contrast:
    • Mexico: $175.9 billion deficit, 25% tariff (same as India).
    • Vietnam: $129.4 billion, lower tariffs.
    • Germany, Ireland, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea: Higher deficits but lower U.S. tariffs than India.
    • Only China (30%) and Canada (35%) have both higher deficits and tariffs than India.
  1. Allegations Over India’s Russian Oil Imports:
  • U.S. criticism of India’s crude oil purchases from Russia as support for the Ukraine conflict is selective and misleading.
  • As per the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (2025):
  • China (47%) imported more Russian crude than India (38%).
  • The EU remains the largest buyer of Russian LNG (51%) and pipeline gas (37%).
  • Other significant buyers: Japan (18%), Turkiye (6%).
  • Thus, targeting India while larger buyers remain under less scrutiny reflects geopolitical bias.
  1. Implications for India-U.S. Trade Relations:
  • India’s exports are impacted by higher costs in the U.S. market due to these tariffs.
  • Strategic bilateral agreements such as the India-U.S. Trade Policy Forum (TPF) and Quad economic cooperation could be undermined.
  • The punitive tariffs may push India to diversify export markets, or deepen engagement with alternative trade blocs (e.g., EU, ASEAN).

Way Forward:

  1. Pursue Diplomatic Channels:
    • Leverage forums like the G20, QUAD, and WTO to address tariff grievances and present trade data.
  2. Strengthen Bilateral Negotiations:
    • Re-engage through the India-U.S. Trade Policy Forum to resolve tariff disputes and revive the stalled mini-trade deal.
  3. Diversify Export Markets:
    • Reduce reliance on the U.S. by enhancing partnerships with EU, Africa, ASEAN, and Latin America.
  4. Highlight Trade Parity and Fairness:
    • Use data-backed diplomacy to showcase asymmetry in U.S. trade treatment, and advocate for non-discriminatory tariff practices.

Conclusion:

The U.S.’s tariff policy towards India appears disproportionate and strategically inconsistent, especially when benchmarked against trade deficit data. Coupled with unfair criticism of India’s energy ties with Russia, this signals a potential misalignment in India-U.S. trade diplomacy. India must adopt a calibrated strategy combining diplomatic assertion, trade diversification, and data-driven advocacy to protect its interests while ensuring the broader India-U.S. strategic partnership remains resilient.

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions (PYQs):

  • GS II (2022): “Critically assess the recent trends in India-U.S. bilateral trade relations.”
  • GS II (2020): “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Comment.
  • GS II (2018): “Bilateral trade agreements are more important than multilateral trade agreements.” Do you agree? Give reasons.
  • GS III (2015): “India’s foreign trade policy needs a relook to address new global realities.” Discuss.

Sources:

  • Rubix Data Sciences Trade Analysis (2025)
  • Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (2025)
  • Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India
  • Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) Reports

Introduction

India’s Neighbourhood First Policy is a cornerstone of its foreign policy aimed at prioritizing relations with its immediate neighbours to promote regional stability, development, and security. The recent visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to the Maldives — amidst a reset in bilateral ties after a period of diplomatic strain — highlights the evolving dynamics of India’s engagement with its neighbourhood and the necessity of sustained, strategic outreach.

Body

  1. Background of India-Maldives Relations
  • Bilateral ties suffered a setback after the 2023 Maldivian elections, which saw the victory of President Mohamed Muizzu backed by an “India Out” campaign.
  • Following this, a “Boycott Maldives” social media trend emerged in India, straining people-to-people ties and soft power influence.
  1. Resetting Relations in 2024
  • Prime Minister Modi’s participation in the Maldives’ 60th Independence Day in July 2024 symbolized a diplomatic reset.
  • Key announcements included:
    • Line of Credit: $565 million (~₹4,850 crore) to support Maldivian economy.
    • Debt Restructuring: Reduction of 40% on annual debt servicing of earlier Indian credit lines.
    • Launch of FTA Negotiations: First step toward deeper economic integration.
    • MoUs Signed: Cooperation in fisheries, meteorology, pharma, digital payments (including rupee-rufiyaa exchange).
  1. Strategic Importance of Maldives
  • Geostrategically located in the Indian Ocean, Maldives is vital for India’s maritime security and SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) doctrine.
  • Maldives is part of India’s trilateral maritime security dialogue with Sri Lanka, reaffirming India’s leadership in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
  1. Reaffirmation of ‘Neighbourhood First’
  • India’s proactive diplomacy in Maldives signals renewed focus on its neighbours amidst:
  • Tensions with Pakistan post-Pahalgam attacks.
  • Strained ties with Bangladesh.
  • Global distractions like Ukraine and Gaza crises.
  • India is also engaging Nepal (PM Oli’s upcoming visit) and prioritizing regional economic and security cooperation despite global headwinds.

Way Forward

  • Institutionalize Regional Mechanisms: Strengthen BIMSTEC and IORA frameworks for collective action.
  • Economic Diplomacy: Scale up connectivity, trade, and digital cooperation with SAARC nations, especially post-pandemic.
  • People-to-People Ties: Use tourism, scholarships, healthcare diplomacy to build trust at the grassroots.
  • Counter External Influence: Balance China’s growing footprint through credible, transparent and needs-based assistance.
  • Crisis Response: Continue regional humanitarian efforts (e.g., Operation Sindoor) to build goodwill.

Conclusion

India’s engagement with the Maldives and other neighbours must transcend episodic diplomacy and be grounded in sustained partnerships that align mutual interests. In an era of multipolarity and regional uncertainties, a deeper regional commitment not only strengthens India’s strategic depth but also upholds its aspiration to be a “Vishwa Mitra” (global friend). The visit to Maldives is thus both symbolic and substantive in revitalizing India’s Neighbourhood First policy.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II:
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
    • India and its neighbourhood- relations

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • GS II – 2021: “‘India’s relations with its neighbours have deteriorated in the recent past.’ Examine the statement with respect to India’s relations with China, Nepal and Sri Lanka.”
  • GS II – 2020: “Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the COVID-19 pandemic.” (Comparative dimension in institutional engagement.)
  • GS II – 2019: “What is meant by the Neighbourhood First policy of India? How has been India’s relationship with its neighbours in recent years?”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), Press Releases on Maldives Visit (2024)
  • RBI, Currency Swap Data
  • PIB, Line of Credit Announcements (2024)
  • The Hindu Editorial, July 2024
  • India-Maldives Joint Statement 2024

Introduction

On July 24, 2025, India and the United Kingdom signed the long-negotiated Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) after over three years of discussions. CETA aims to liberalize goods and services trade, promote investment and market access, and deepen bilateral economic ties. The pact, which also includes the Double Contribution Convention (DCC), marks a significant evolution in India’s approach to bilateral Free Trade Agreements (FTAs).

Body

  1. Key Provisions of the India-U.K. CETA
  • Goods Trade:
  • K. has removed tariffs on 99% of its product lines.
  • 45% of India’s current exports to the U.K. (worth ~$6.5 billion) such as textiles, seafood, fruits, carpets, footwear, and automobiles to gain duty-free access.
  • India will reduce/eliminate tariffs on 90% of U.K.’s tariff lines, benefiting sectors like whiskey, cars, and engineering goods.
  • Luxury cars: Import duty cut from 110% to 10% over 15 years under a quota system.
  • Electric and hybrid vehicles: Protected for the first 5 years.
  • Services Trade:
  • India opens sectors like financial services, telecom, auditing, and environmental services to U.K. firms.
  • K. to allow Indian firms commercial presence rights in IT, consultancy, and environmental services.
  • Recognition of professional qualifications in select domains like accounting and auditing (excluding legal practice).
  • Double Contribution Convention (DCC):
  • Enables 75,000 Indian short-term workers in the U.K. to contribute solely to India’s social security system, avoiding dual contributions.
  • Government Procurement:
  • For the first time, U.K. firms will have access to India’s central government procurement market, including transport and green infrastructure.
  1. Implications for India
  • Trade Boost:
  • Enhances market access for Indian goods in a high-income economy.
  • Beneficial for labour-intensive sectors like apparel and seafood.
  • Services Sector Expansion:
  • Reinforces India’s strength in IT and knowledge-based industries.
  • Encourages cross-border delivery of services without local presence.
  • Employment and Remittances:
  • DCC benefits Indian workers by avoiding unnecessary contributions to foreign social security.
  • Domestic Industry Concerns:
  • Tariff cuts on luxury cars may challenge Indian auto manufacturers.
  • Gradual reduction under quota system gives time for adjustment.
  • Strategic Significance:
  • First trade deal post-Brexit for the U.K. with a major developing country.
  • Serves as a template for future FTAs with the EU and the U.S..

Way Forward

  • Speedy Ratification: Both governments should ratify the deal within the next 6–12 months to ensure timely implementation.
  • Stakeholder Engagement: Establish support mechanisms for small exporters and MSMEs to navigate new markets.
  • Skilling for Services: Upskill Indian professionals in fields like accounting and telecom to leverage mutual recognition.
  • Digital Infrastructure: Strengthen e-commerce and digital service frameworks to facilitate cross-border service delivery.

Conclusion

The India-U.K. CETA represents a modern, comprehensive trade pact that blends goods liberalisation with services, procurement, and mobility. It reflects India’s readiness to engage deeper with developed economies on reciprocal terms. With effective implementation and strategic foresight, CETA can significantly boost India’s exports, employment, and global trade standing in the coming decade.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II – International Relations
    • Bilateral relations and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
  • GS Paper III – Economy
    • Indian Economy and trade-related issues
    • Effects of liberalization on the economy

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2022 (GS II): India’s foreign policy is increasingly guided by economic interests. Analyse in the context of FTAs.
  • 2020 (GS III): Account for India’s declining share in global merchandise trade. What strategy should India adopt to reverse the trend?
  • 2017 (GS II): Discuss the significance of India’s trade agreements in strengthening regional and bilateral relations.

Sources:

  • Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India (Press Release, July 2025)
  • Global Trade Research Initiative (2025 Report on India-U.K. CETA)
  • U.K. Department for Business and Trade Briefing
  • Economic Survey 2024–25 – Chapter on Trade and External Sector
  • PIB Press Note on India-U.K. Strategic Partnership, July 2025

Introduction

The India-U.K. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), signed in 2025, marks a significant milestone in India’s bilateral trade diplomacy. In the backdrop of a shifting global economic order and rising protectionism, such bilateral free trade agreements (FTAs) not only expand market access but also set the tone for future trade negotiations with larger economic blocs like the European Union (EU) and the United States (U.S.).

Body

Key Features of the India-U.K. CETA:

  • The U.K. has agreed to eliminate duties on ~99% of Indian tariff lines, enabling better access for Indian products like textiles, leather, agriculture, and chemicals.
  • India has reciprocated with duty-free access on ~90% of U.K. tariff lines, but excluded sensitive agricultural items such as dairy, oats, and edible oils.
  • A graded reduction in automobile import duties (by 100 percentage points over 10 years) has been agreed upon, allowing India’s domestic industry time to adapt.
  • The U.K. capped professional mobility visas to 1,800 per year, covering only niche professions like yoga and classical arts. Broader categories such as IT and business professionals remain excluded, which India had demanded.

Strategic and Economic Significance:

  • Trade Diversification: The U.K. accounts for ~2% of India’s total trade (approx. $20 billion in 2024; Ministry of Commerce), indicating high untapped potential.
  • Export Growth: Sectors like textiles, pharma, and chemicals are likely to gain substantially in the short term.
  • Strategic Gateway: The U.K. can serve as a conduit for Indian exports to Europe, potentially lowering costs via the duty-free regime.
  • Investment Boost: Multinational companies may see India as an attractive base to leverage its preferential access to the U.K. market.

Challenges and Limitations:

  • Limited Labour Mobility Provisions reduce the value of the agreement for India’s service sector.
  • Risk of future demands from the EU and U.S., seeking greater concessions, as these nations view the CETA as a reference template.
  • Potential concerns about domestic industry readiness, especially in sectors like automobiles and high-end manufacturing.

Way Forward

  • Strengthen Export Competitiveness: Invest in infrastructure, logistics, skilling, and MSME support schemes (such as RoDTEP, MEIS) to help exporters scale up.
  • Leverage for Bigger Deals: Use CETA provisions to shape India’s negotiation stance in ongoing talks with EU (India-EU FTA under TEPA) and the U.S.
  • Balance Sensitivities: Future deals must consider domestic economic interests, especially agriculture, labour mobility, and strategic sectors.

Conclusion

The India-U.K. CETA exemplifies the pragmatic diplomacy of “give and take,” where gains in market access are balanced with protection of domestic interests. While not perfect, it offers a strategic blueprint for deeper integration with the West and enables India to strengthen its global trade architecture amid rising global protectionism.

Link with Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • GS II (2018): “What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘trade war’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?”
  • GS III (2021): “What are the challenges and opportunities in bilateral trade agreements vis-à-vis multilateral trade agreements?”
  • GS II (2017): “Discuss the role of India in the context of new global economic order.”

Relevant Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II – International Relations: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
  • GS Paper III – Indian Economy: Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth

Sources:

  • Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Govt. of India
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB), 2025
  • UK Department for Business and Trade
  • Economic Survey of India 2024–25
  • NITI Aayog and EXIM Data (2024)

Introduction

India and China, as two of Asia’s largest powers, share a complex and often strained bilateral relationship. After a three-year diplomatic freeze following the 2020 Galwan Valley clash, which claimed the lives of 20 Indian and multiple Chinese soldiers, both countries are now cautiously re-engaging. India’s decision in 2025 to resume tourist visas for Chinese nationals, following China’s reopening of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, signals a slow but deliberate thawing of relations.

Body

Recent Developments in Bilateral Engagement:

  • High-level diplomatic talks: Since the Modi-Xi meeting in Kazan (Oct 2024), the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) has met thrice.
  • Restoration of travel channels: Talks are underway to resume direct flights, and India has restarted tourist visas for Chinese nationals.
  • Functional dialogues on trade: Discussions are ongoing to address India’s restrictions on Chinese investments and China’s export controls on fertilizers and critical minerals that impact Indian supply chains.
  • Border talks: Preparations are on for the Special Representatives’ meeting on boundary issues, with discussions on Chinese projects like the Brahmaputra mega-dam in Tibet.
  • SCO Summit 2025: PM Modi is expected to visit China for the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit, indicating renewed political engagement.

Persistent Challenges:

  • Lack of transparency on 2020 transgressions: There has been no formal clarification from China on why PLA troops violated the LAC, leading to a breakdown in trust.
  • No full de-escalation at LAC: As per the 2024 Parliamentary statement, peace and tranquillity are preconditions to normalization, but troop disengagement and infrastructure rollback are yet to be achieved.
  • Operation Sindoor revelations: Intelligence suggests PLA coordination with Pakistan’s army, raising security concerns for India’s western and northern frontiers.
  • Trade and tech vulnerabilities: China’s export restrictions on key tech materials affect India’s electronics and automobile sectors (notably Japanese and Korean investments in India).

Way Forward

  • Insist on verifiable de-escalation at the LAC as a prerequisite for full normalization.
  • Enhance supply chain resilience through diversification and investments in domestic alternatives to Chinese critical minerals.
  • Strengthen regional alliances via forums like QUAD and ASEAN, while continuing engagement through BRICS and SCO.
  • Establish institutional trust mechanisms, including a revamped border hotline system, real-time communication during patrols, and a bilateral LAC code of conduct.

Conclusion

While steps towards normalization between India and China are visible, strategic trust remains fragile. Diplomatic engagement must not sideline core sovereignty and security issues at the border. A calibrated and principled approach combining engagement with deterrence is essential to rebuild a stable, transparent, and peaceful bilateral framework.

Link with Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • GS II (2020): “The India-China relationship is increasingly marked by competition and conflict rather than cooperation.” Comment.
  • GS II (2017): “China’s increasing presence in South Asia and the Indian Ocean is a strategic concern for India.” Comment.
  • GS II (2011): “Discuss the features of India’s foreign policy in the context of the evolving global order.”

Relevant Syllabus:

GS Paper II – International Relations: India and its neighborhood – relations; Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), Government of India
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB), 2024–25
  • Lok Sabha Parliamentary Reply, December 2024
  • Ministry of Commerce and Industry: Trade statistics with China (2024)
  • Reports from Observer Research Foundation (ORF) and Institute of Chinese Studies (ICS)

Introduction

India and the Maldives share deep-rooted historical, cultural, and strategic ties in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). However, the relationship has undergone notable turbulence since 2023, particularly due to the ‘India Out’ campaign initiated during President Mohamed Muizzu’s election campaign. The recent visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to Male for the Maldives’ 60th Independence Day (July 2025) signals a thaw and a fresh strategic opening in bilateral ties.

Body

Evolution of Ties (2023–2025):

  • Initial Hostility: President Muizzu’s ‘India Out’ rhetoric during the 2023 elections and subsequent demands for removal of Indian military personnel created diplomatic strain.
  • COP28 Breakthrough: At the Dubai Climate Summit (Dec 2023), both leaders agreed to revive economic and people-to-people ties.
  • January 2024 Setback: Derogatory remarks by Maldivian ministers about PM Modi’s Lakshadweep visit triggered a #BoycottMaldives campaign in India, affecting Maldivian tourism.
  • Troop Withdrawal: By May 2024, India complied with Muizzu’s demand, replacing its military with technical personnel.
  • Diplomatic Recovery: This pragmatic compromise laid the foundation for President Muizzu’s state visit to India (Oct 2024) and a recalibration of strategic ties.

Recent Strategic & Economic Engagements:

  • $750 million Currency Swap: Signed in Oct 2024 to ease Maldives’ foreign exchange crisis, extended till 2027 (RBI and MEA data).
  • $50 million Treasury Bill rollover (May 2025): Helped stabilize Maldivian foreign reserves.
  • Joint Vision Statement: Aims to foster a Comprehensive Economic and Maritime Security Partnership, with collaboration in fisheries, renewable energy, digital infrastructure, and blue economy.
  • FTA Negotiations: Discussions underway to formalize a Free Trade Agreement, ensuring India’s preferential access and countering Chinese influence.

Way Forward

  • Institutionalize Strategic Dialogue: Expand engagement through 2+2 ministerial dialogues, naval exercises, and maritime patrol coordination.
  • Capacity Building: Support Maldives’ debt restructuring and climate resilience, especially given its rising fiscal deficit and vulnerability to climate change.
  • Tourism & Cultural Diplomacy: Address people-to-people trust deficits via tourism promotion, student scholarships, and media exchanges.
  • Check Chinese Influence: Increase India’s visibility through infrastructure investments, digital partnerships, and coastal radar systems, ensuring India remains Maldives’ first strategic choice.

Conclusion

India’s renewed engagement with the Maldives marks a pragmatic recalibration of regional diplomacy. Despite provocations and mistrust, quiet diplomacy, economic support, and strategic patience have enabled New Delhi to preserve its maritime interests and reclaim strategic goodwill. Sustaining this positive momentum will require consistent engagement, mutual respect, and sensitivity to Maldivian sovereignty.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions Linkage

  • GS II (2023): “Discuss the importance of the Indian Ocean region for India’s foreign policy.”
  • GS II (2021): “Critically examine the role of India in promoting regional cooperation in South Asia.”
  • GS II (2018): “Neighbourhood First policy of India is showing signs of revival. Examine in the context of India’s relations with Maldives and Sri Lanka.”

Relevant Syllabus

GS Paper II – International Relations

  • India and its neighborhood – relations
  • Bilateral agreements involving India
  • Effect of policies and politics of neighbouring countries on India’s interests

Sources

  • Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), July 2025 briefings
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB), India-Maldives Joint Statements
  • Reserve Bank of India (RBI): Currency Swap & Treasury Bill Data
  • The Hindu, Meera Srinivasan reports (2023–2025)
  • India-Maldives Vision Statement, October 2024

Introduction

India has long articulated a vision of a multipolar global order, wherein power is distributed among several influential states. However, emerging geopolitical developments—particularly the threat of a U.S.-Israel-Iran war—challenge India’s strategic autonomy, energy security, and great power aspirations. The erosion of non-West-aligned powers like Iran may consolidate U.S.-led unipolarity, limiting India’s manoeuvrability in West Asia, a critical region for its economic and strategic interests.

Body

  1. Strategic Importance of West Asia to India
  • India sources nearly 52% of its crude oil imports from West Asia (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, 2024).
  • Hosts over 8 million Indian expatriates, remitting ~$50 billion annually (MEA, 2024).
  • Region serves as a key theatre for India’s Act West Policy and energy diplomacy.
  1. Threats to India’s Multipolar Vision
  • A regime change in Iran could solidify U.S. dominance in West Asia, reducing India’s strategic diversification.
  • India’s ability to balance relations between rival blocs—like Iran-Israel, or Saudi Arabia-Qatar—would diminish.
  • With the fall of Assad and possible weakening of Iran, India’s parallel engagement with alternative power centers erodes.
  1. Clash of Worldviews with the West
  • India’s strategic defiance of Western sanctions on Russia underscores its autonomy-first approach.
  • U.S. threats of secondary sanctions on Russian energy and military purchases (e.g., INS Tamal) demonstrate growing friction.
  • Multipolarity vs. unipolarity remains a core schism between New Delhi and Washington.
  1. Repercussions for India’s Great Power Status
  • Being reduced to dependence on U.S.-aligned energy suppliers weakens India’s negotiating leverage.
  • Reinforcing U.S. hegemony would undermine alternative poles like BRICS, Russia, and Iran—spaces where India has strategic weight.
  • A unipolar global architecture inherently limits India’s role as an autonomous pole in world affairs.

Way Forward: India’s Diplomatic Strategy

  • 🇮🇳 Assert Multipolarity Diplomacy: India must leverage its strategic partnership with the U.S. to promote tolerance for multipolarity.

For example, India’s External Affairs Minister stated during the 2024 Russia visit: “We seek a multipolar world with regional balances.”

  • Emphasize Energy Security Linkages: India should highlight that a disruption in West Asian oil will disproportionately harm India over China, affecting U.S. Indo-Pacific goals.
  • Call for De-escalation in West Asia: India should encourage non-interventionist approaches and regional dialogues, using forums like the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and BRICS+.
  • Deepen Ties with Like-Minded States: Engage with Russia, Iran, ASEAN, and Africa to build a robust southern coalition for strategic diversification.
  • Publicly Advocate Multipolarity as a Stabilizing Force: Position multipolarity not as a threat to the West, but as insurance against global instability.

Conclusion

India’s great power ambitions hinge on a balanced global order where no single hegemon dictates the strategic outcomes. As conflicts in West Asia threaten to entrench unipolar domination, India must tactfully assert its strategic interests, champion regional sovereignty, and promote multipolar diplomacy. Doing so will not only safeguard its energy and geopolitical interests, but also ensure that India remains a pole of influence in the evolving world order.

UPSC Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II: India and its neighborhood – International Relations.
  • GS Paper II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
  • GS Paper II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India.

Previous Year UPSC Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC 2023 (GS II): “India’s foreign policy in a multipolar world.” Discuss.
  • UPSC 2022 (GS II): “Discuss the role of India in the context of rising multipolarity in international affairs.”
  • UPSC 2019 (GS II): “What are the challenges to India’s foreign policy in the current global scenario?”

Sources:

  • Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, GoI (2024)
  • Ministry of External Affairs, GoI (2024)
  • BRICS Summit Declaration (2023)
  • Kadira Pethiyagoda, The Hindu Editorial (2025)
  • U.S. Department of State, Global Sanctions Reports (2024)

Introduction:

In an increasingly polarized global order, energy security has become a central component of India’s strategic autonomy. The recent U.S. Bill—Russian Sanctions Act, 2025—proposing a 500% tariff on countries buying Russian oil, and NATO’s warnings to India and others, have brought into focus India’s evolving energy diplomacy, especially with Russia, which currently accounts for over 38% of India’s crude oil imports (as of February 2025, MEA Briefing).

Body:

  1. India’s Energy Strategy and Strategic Autonomy:
  • India’s foreign policy is driven by strategic autonomy, especially in the energy domain.
  • The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) reiterated that securing affordable energy is a sovereign priority for a developing economy like India.
  • India currently imports crude oil from 40 countries (up from 27 in 2021), highlighting supply diversification, as noted by Petroleum Minister Hardeep Puri.
  1. Western Pressures vs Energy Realpolitik:
  • The U.S. sanctions threat (500% import duty) and NATO’s secondary tariffs are perceived as economic coercion.
  • MEA cautioned against “double standards”, referring to EU’s continued purchase of Russian LNG and processed oil via countries like India.
  • For instance, Nayara Energy (Gujarat), partially owned by Russia’s Rosneft, refines Russian crude and exports globally, including to the EU.
  1. Global Trade Dynamics and India’s Position:
  • As of 2025, Russia exports ~50% of oil to China, ~38% to India, and only ~6% to EU countries (Petroleum Planning & Analysis Cell, PPAC).
  • Despite U.S. pressure, India has not resumed oil imports from Iran, stopped in 2017 during Trump’s first term.
  • India’s consistent stance is shaped by energy affordability, market access, and domestic consumption needs (India is the 3rd largest oil consumer globally).
  1. Other Diplomatic Dimensions:
  • India continues broader engagement with the U.S., e.g., cooperation in the deportation of illegal Indian migrants, with 1,563 deported in the first half of 2025 alone.

Way Forward:

  • Deepen energy diversification: Engage more with Latin America, Africa, and Central Asia to reduce overdependence on Russian oil.
  • Strengthen domestic capacity: Accelerate green energy transition through initiatives like National Green Hydrogen Mission.
  • Institutionalize energy diplomacy: Build multilateral platforms (BRICS Energy Forum, IEF) to counter unilateral sanctions.
  • Leverage WTO and UN frameworks: Challenge coercive trade measures that violate multilateral norms.

Conclusion:

India’s cautious yet assertive response to U.S. and NATO pressure reflects a mature balance between global diplomacy and national interest. While global norms are evolving amidst conflict, India’s focus remains on affordable, secure, and diversified energy access to sustain economic growth and uphold sovereign decision-making.

Link to UPSC Syllabus & Previous Year Questions:

GS Paper II – International Relations

  • India and its neighborhood – relations
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests

PYQ Examples:

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2020: “Critically examine the role of India in multilateral energy diplomacy in the context of changing global energy markets.”
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2022: “Do you think India’s foreign policy has shifted its focus from non-alignment to multi-alignment? Discuss with suitable examples.”

Introduction

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), established in 2001, aims to foster regional peace, security, and economic cooperation. A key pillar of its foundation is combating the “three evils” — terrorism, separatism, and extremism. Despite this mandate, divergences among member states, especially over terrorism, have constrained its effectiveness. India, since joining in 2017, has consistently pushed for an uncompromising stance against terrorism, most recently highlighted by External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar at the 2025 SCO Foreign Ministers’ Meet in China.

Body

India’s Key Concerns

  • Pahalgam Terror Attack (April 2025): 26 individuals, mostly tourists, were targeted based on religion. The attack aimed to damage Jammu and Kashmir’s tourism economy and fuel communal divisions.
  • Jaishankar’s Assertion: Urged SCO to adhere to its founding values and reject selective approaches to terrorism. He stressed the need to bring perpetrators to justice, citing UNSC condemnation of the attack.

Challenges Within SCO

  • Lack of Consensus: The SCO Defence Ministers’ Meeting failed to release a joint statement in 2025 due to differences over terrorism-related language.
  • Pakistan’s Silence: Pakistani representatives at the summit avoided direct reference to terrorism, instead reiterating positions on Kashmir and UNSC resolutions.
  • China’s Balancing Act: While promoting regional stability, China avoids taking a hard stance against its strategic partner Pakistan, leading to diplomatic gridlocks.

India’s Broader Strategy

  • Counterterror Diplomacy: India used the SCO platform to highlight the global nature of terrorism and advocate for collective countermeasures.
  • Connectivity & Trade: Criticised Pakistan for blocking India-Afghanistan trade, undermining SCO’s economic goals. Advocated the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) via Iran as an alternative.
  • Afghanistan Engagement: India linked development assistance with regional security, emphasizing its long-standing role in Afghan reconstruction.

Way Forward

  • Institutional Reform within SCO: Develop a uniform counter-terrorism protocol with enforceable guidelines and independent verification mechanisms.
  • Delink Terrorism from Politics: Encourage member states to refrain from using terrorism as statecraft or shielding proxies.
  • Enhance Regional Connectivity: Push for inclusive infrastructure initiatives like INSTC that bypass political bottlenecks.
  • Build Multilateral Pressure: Use forums like BRICS and G20 to isolate terror-supporting regimes and mainstream SCO’s anti-terror agenda.

Conclusion

Terrorism remains the Achilles’ heel of regional cooperation under SCO. India’s persistent advocacy for a zero-tolerance policy is rooted in its domestic vulnerabilities and commitment to regional peace. For SCO to stay relevant amid global shifts, it must move beyond rhetoric, adopt firm anti-terror mechanisms, and embrace equitable cooperation in connectivity and development.

Link to UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II:
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India
    • India and its neighborhood – relations
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
    • Role of international institutions

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • GS II (2023): “Discuss the role of SCO in promoting regional cooperation and its limitations.”
  • GS II (2020): “Evaluate the role of regional organisations in promoting peace and security in South Asia.”
  • GS II (2019): “What is the significance of Indo-Iran relations for India’s connectivity to Central Asia?”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs (Press Release, April–May 2025)
  • UNSC Statement on Pahalgam Attack (April 2025)
  • Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Charter (2001)
  • Ministry of Commerce & Industry: INSTC Status (2024)
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB): India at SCO Foreign Ministers’ Meeting (May 2025)

Introduction

The two-state solution, first envisioned under UN General Assembly Resolution 181 (1947), proposed separate Israeli and Palestinian states coexisting peacefully. Despite global consensus, including by India, on this model, the ground reality now suggests a de facto one-state dominance — both political and territorial — by Israel. The current situation reflects the growing irrelevance of the two-state solution and raises urgent questions about international inaction, legality, and the future of the Palestinian people.

Body

  1. Erosion of the Two-State Vision
  • Fragmented Palestinian Territory:
    As of 2024, over 700,000 Israeli settlers reside illegally in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem (UN OCHA), undermining the geographic and political viability of a Palestinian state.
  • Legal and Political Architecture:
    A parallel settler state, backed by the Israeli military and governed by regional councils like Yesha, has emerged. It enforces its own rules and receives state funding, indicating a quasi-federal settler regime operating under selective Israeli laws.
  • Diplomatic Protection and Impunity:
    Despite repeated UN resolutions, powerful countries like the U.S. shield Israel from international sanctions, including vetoes on accountability mechanisms at the UN Security Council.
  • Weaponization of Religion and Ideology:
    The rise of messianic and theocratic narratives in Israeli politics, especially post-2019, has led to increased violence, displacement, and normalization of settler expansionism.
  • Humanitarian Crisis and Death Toll:
    According to the Palestinian Health Ministry, over 54,000 Palestinians have been killed since October 2023. Infrastructure in Gaza has been devastated, while international law violations continue unabated.

Way Forward

  1. Reaffirming Legal Frameworks
  • Implement UNSC Resolution 2334 (2016) that demands the cessation of settlement activity and reaffirms the illegality of the occupation.
  1. Political Accountability
  • Apply the same principles used against Russia (16,500+ sanctions) by enforcing targeted sanctions, arms embargoes, and international court proceedings on war crimes.
  1. India’s Diplomatic Balancing
  • India has traditionally supported Palestine while maintaining strong ties with Israel. A reassertion of commitment to a two-state solution with calls for ceasefire and humanitarian access aligns with both morality and strategic autonomy.
  1. Strengthening Multilateral Institutions
  • Revitalize Quartet diplomacy (UN, EU, US, Russia) and enhance OIC-UN cooperation to enforce credible timelines and monitoring of violations.

Conclusion

The erosion of the two-state model is not just a geopolitical issue but a moral failure of the international order. If the global community continues to placate Israel’s defiance of international law, the region risks descending into perpetual war. The only path to lasting peace lies in accountability, restoration of Palestinian self-determination, and a revived multilateral consensus. The window for action is closing fast — justice must no longer be deferred.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • GS II (2023): “The crisis in the Middle East has profound implications for India’s energy security. Discuss.”
  • GS II (2022): “Discuss the global significance of the Abraham Accords.”
  • GS II (2020): “The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has become a permanent feature in West Asian politics. Discuss India’s position and interests in this context.”

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II: International Relations – Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
  • GS Paper II: Important International Institutions, agencies, and fora – their structure, mandate
  • GS Paper II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

Sources Used:

  • UNGA Resolution 181 (1947), UNSC Resolution 2334 (2016)
  • UN OCHA Reports (2023–24)
  • Ministry of External Affairs (India) Official Statements
  • Palestinian Ministry of Health (Gaza)
  • Centre for Policy Research (CPR) Middle East Briefs
  • Al Jazeera and The Hindu editorials (July 2024)

 

Introduction

India-China relations, one of the most consequential bilateral engagements in Asia, remain marred by territorial disputes, strategic rivalry, and geopolitical mistrust. Among these, Tibet-related issues, particularly the Dalai Lama’s reincarnation, have emerged as a diplomatic flashpoint. Ahead of External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar’s visit to China for the SCO Conclave (July 2025), the Chinese embassy described Tibet as a “thorn” in bilateral ties — underscoring its heightened sensitivity toward issues concerning Xizang (Tibet).

Body

  1. The Tibet Factor in India-China Relations
  • Historical context: After the 1959 Tibetan uprising, India granted asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama and over 100,000 Tibetan refugees, leading to enduring tensions with China.
  • 2025 Trigger: The Dalai Lama reiterated that his reincarnation will be decided by a Tibetan Buddhist trust, not the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) — provoking strong backlash from Beijing.
  • China maintains that the Dalai Lama’s reincarnation is an “internal affair”, and accuses Indian academics and officials of interference.
  1. Strategic Implications for India
  • China’s concerns:
    • Fear of India leveraging the Tibet card to counter Chinese aggression, especially after the 2020 Galwan Valley clash.
    • Attempts to delegitimize the Tibetan Government-in-Exile headquartered in Dharamshala.
  • India’s balancing act:
    • Officially recognizes Tibet as an autonomous region of China, but continues to host the Dalai Lama and Tibetans.
    • India has refrained from overt support to Tibetan independence to avoid strategic escalation, yet allows limited cultural and religious freedom to Tibetans.
  1. Geopolitical Context
  • Chinese pressure tactics:
    • Use of propaganda and social media warnings against Indian academic commentary.
    • Attempt to project Tibet as a sovereignty issue, diverting attention from border tensions.
  • India’s SCO engagement:
    • Opportunity to reduce tensions through Track-I diplomacy and high-level engagement, especially after 2024 disengagement at remaining LAC flashpoints.

Way Forward

  1. Strategic Restraint with Moral Clarity
  • Maintain diplomatic ambiguity on the reincarnation issue, avoiding public statements but upholding religious freedom of Tibetan Buddhists in India.
  1. Reinforce Border Diplomacy
  • Pursue sustained dialogue on the LAC while insulating broader bilateral ties from single-issue escalations.
  1. Multilateral Engagement
  • Use forums like SCO, BRICS, and G20 to push for rules-based international order, reducing space for unilateral Chinese assertions.
  1. Institutionalize Tibetan Welfare
  • Enhance socio-economic integration of Tibetan refugees under Indian laws while de-escalating any internationalization of the issue.
  1. Coordinate with Global Democracies
  • Quietly align with like-minded partners (e.g., the U.S., EU, Japan) in reinforcing principles of religious autonomy and human rights, without direct provocation.

Conclusion

Tibet remains a sensitive and strategic fault line in India-China relations. While China seeks to assert control over the Dalai Lama’s succession to fortify its claim over Tibet, India must pursue a calibrated approach — balancing national interests, border security, and moral obligations. A nuanced, multilevel engagement strategy is key to ensuring stability in a rapidly evolving Indo-China dynamic.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper II: India and its Neighbourhood – Relations | Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings | Effect of Policies of Developed Nations on India’s Interests

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS II): “China’s aggressive policy and expansionist ambitions pose a challenge to India’s neighbourhood policy.” Discuss.
  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS II): “India’s relations with China have been turbulent in recent times.” Discuss with reference to border and economic concerns.
  • UPSC Mains 2013 (GS II): Discuss the implications of India’s decision to grant asylum to the Dalai Lama for Indo-China relations.

Sources:

  • Press Trust of India (July 2025)
  • Ministry of External Affairs (GoI)
  • Tibetan Policy and Support Act, 2020 (USA)
  • SCO 2025 Agenda – Ministry of External Affairs
  • IDSA & ORF Analysis on Indo-China Relations

Introduction

BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), originally formed to represent emerging economies, has expanded to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iran, and UAE. Amid global shifts, the grouping has discussed reducing dependence on the U.S. dollar through initiatives like the BRICS Cross-Border Payments Initiative. However, U.S. President Donald Trump’s repeated threats of tariffs on BRICS members reflect concerns over de-dollarisation, challenging the liberal global order and India’s strategic balancing act.

Body

  1. Why is BRICS under U.S. scrutiny?
  • Trump views BRICS as an anti-American alliance, especially after its 2023 Johannesburg and 2024 Kazan declarations exploring non-dollar payment mechanisms.
  • At the 17th BRICS Summit (Rio, 2025), Trump warned of 10% tariffs on any country aligning with BRICS, scaled down from earlier threats of 100%.
  • The U.S. fears BRICS could undermine the dollar’s global hegemony, especially as Western sanctions on Russia push countries to explore alternative financial systems.
  1. U.S. Actions So Far
  • 50% tariff on Brazil, citing political bias against Bolsonaro.
  • 30% tariff on South Africa over trade imbalance and domestic human rights concerns.
  • The proposed Sanctioning Russia Act of 2025 seeks 500% tariffs on Russian oil/products, indirectly impacting India and China—major importers.
  1. Is BRICS launching a new currency?
  • While BRICS discussions promote payment interoperability and local currency usage, no formal decision exists on a common BRICS currency.
  • The Rio Declaration 2025, specifically Paragraph 50, mentions exploring pathways for payment system interoperability, not replacing the dollar.
  1. India’s Position
  • India has denied any plan to challenge the dollar.
    • MoS Finance (Dec 2024): India “took note” but did not adopt Russia’s proposal on alternative payments.
    • EAM S. Jaishankar (Mar 2025): No Indian policy to replace the dollar; acknowledges differences within BRICS.
  • India is negotiating a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the U.S., and seeks to avoid being caught in binary rivalries.

Way Forward

  • Strategic Non-Alignment: India should continue its multi-alignment approach, cooperating with BRICS on reforming global governance while safeguarding U.S. ties.
  • Monetary Sovereignty: Advocate for currency diversification in trade without formal de-dollarisation rhetoric.
  • Engage in Dialogue: Use forums like G20 and IMF to reduce misinterpretations and promote multilateral cooperation.
  • Domestic Preparedness: Prepare for tariff shocks by strengthening export resilience and trade with the Global South.

Conclusion

The U.S. reaction to BRICS reflects a deeper contest over monetary dominance in a multipolar world. For India, the challenge is to balance its BRICS commitments with strategic U.S. partnerships, especially amid evolving economic nationalism. A pragmatic and nuanced foreign policy remains critical to safeguard India’s sovereignty, trade interests, and global standing.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II – International Relations: India and its neighbourhood; bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements; Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests.
  • GS Paper III – Economy: Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on growth.

Relevant PYQs

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2023 – GS II: Critically examine the evolving role of BRICS in reshaping global financial institutions.
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2020 – GS II: ‘The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of a China-Russia alliance.’ Discuss.
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2018 – GS II: Bilateral trade between India and the USA has steadily increased, but still poses challenges. Discuss.

Sources:

  • BRICS Summit 2025 Rio Declaration
  • Ministry of External Affairs (March 2025)
  • Lok Sabha Parliament Debates (Dec 2024)
  • Politico Magazine (2025)
  • Economic Survey 2024-25

Introduction

The term Global South refers to countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America historically subjected to colonial exploitation and marginalisation in global decision-making. Rooted in initiatives like the Bandung Conference (1955) and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the idea emphasizes South-South cooperation for achieving developmental sovereignty. In recent years, the BRICS grouping—comprising Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—has emerged as the most significant institutional expression of Global South aspirations, commanding 35% of global GDP and nearly half of the world’s population, surpassing the G7’s 30% share as of 2024.

Body

  1. Institutional Voice of the Global South
  • BRICS Origins: Coined as an economic acronym in 2001, it has evolved into a strategic intergovernmental bloc advocating for a multipolar global order.
  • Key Instruments:
    • New Development Bank (NDB) and Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) aim to provide alternatives to IMF and World Bank.
    • Intra-BRICS trade has surged: China–Brazil trade increased 50x, and China–India trade 28x in the past two decades.
  • The 17th BRICS Summit in Rio (2025) expanded associate partnerships to Belarus, Bolivia, Cuba, Malaysia, Uganda, etc., signaling broader inclusion.
  1. BRICS’ Strategic Influence
  • Geopolitical Stance: BRICS members took a middle-ground approach on the Russia-Ukraine war and issued strong positions on Gaza and Iran, asserting independence from Western narratives.
  • UN Reforms: India and Brazil received support for permanent UNSC membership, reinforcing calls for Global South representation.
  1. Inherent Challenges
  • Diverse National Priorities:
    • India’s tech-driven diplomacy differs from Brazil’s focus on sustainable agriculture and China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
    • Russia, though geographically in the North, aligns on anti-Western sentiments.
  • Contradictions in Practice:
    • National interests often override collective objectives, making unity fragile.
    • India’s tensions with China and growing U.S. ties (Quad, IPEF) limit its ability to act as a unifier.
  1. Western Pushback
  • U.S. Tariff Threats: Donald Trump threatened 10–100% tariffs on BRICS-aligned nations, viewing the bloc as “anti-American.”
  • G20’s Emergence: Western powers created platforms like G20 to co-opt rising economies without significantly altering power structures.

Way Forward

  • Institutional Deepening: BRICS must enhance internal cohesion with transparent governance, conflict-resolution mechanisms, and common development agendas.
  • Development First Agenda: Focus must remain on poverty alleviation, climate resilience, digital cooperation, and debt restructuring for low-income nations.
  • India’s Leadership (2026): With the theme “Building Resilience and Innovation,” India must champion inclusive reforms, while balancing ties with both BRICS and Western platforms.
  • Reform Global Governance: Continue to press for UN, WTO, and IMF reforms to democratize global decision-making.

Conclusion

BRICS holds enormous potential as a counterweight to Western dominance and a champion of equitable global development. However, its success depends on whether it can transition from being a geopolitical balancing act to a democratic developmental platform that centers the needs of the Global South’s people, not merely its elites. As India prepares to lead the bloc in 2026, it stands uniquely poised to guide this transformation.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II – International Relations: Bilateral, regional, and global groupings involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
  • GS Paper III – Indian Economy: Effects of liberalisation on the economy; International financial institutions.

Relevant PYQs

  • UPSC Mains 2022 – GS Paper II: BRICS has emerged as a major platform for South-South cooperation. Critically evaluate its relevance in the current geopolitical scenario.
  • UPSC Mains 2020 – GS Paper II: What is the significance of the Indo-Pacific region in global geopolitics?
  • UPSC Mains 2017 – GS Paper II: “India’s soft power is a major component of its foreign policy.” Discuss with examples.

Sources

  • 17th BRICS Summit Declaration (Rio de Janeiro, 2025)
  • World Bank, IMF Statistics (2024)
  • UNCTAD: South-South Cooperation Report (2023)
  • Ministry of External Affairs, India (BRICS and Global South statements)
  • NDB Annual Report (2024)

Introduction

Multilateral institutions such as the United Nations (UN) and the International Criminal Court (ICC) are foundational pillars of global governance, meant to ensure collective action and uphold international law. However, when powerful states like the U.S. impose unilateral sanctions against UN officials such as Francesca Albanese — the UN Special Rapporteur on the Occupied Palestinian Territories — it raises fundamental concerns about the erosion of multilateralism, selective justice, and undermining of global norms.

Body

  1. Background of U.S. Sanctions Against Francesca Albanese
  • Ms. Albanese was sanctioned by the U.S. for criticizing Israel’s military operations in Gaza, labeling them a potential genocide, and advocating ICC scrutiny of corporate complicity.
  • The U.S. action includes travel bans and asset freezes, with allegations of “antisemitism” and “terrorism support” without substantive evidence.
  • Her mandate, however, is derived from the UN Human Rights Council, not a personal or national initiative.
  1. Implications for Multilateral Institutions
  • Violation of UN principles: UN officials must operate independently without fear of retribution by member states.
  • Undermining ICC jurisdiction: Sanctioning someone for cooperating with the ICC contradicts the principle of international justice and Rule of Law under the Rome Statute.
  • Chilling effect: It discourages other human rights actors and whistleblowers from calling out war crimes or atrocities.
  1. U.S. Exceptionalism and Selective Accountability
  • The U.S. has a history of opposing ICC investigations against its soldiers and allies (e.g., in Iraq, Afghanistan).
  • The recent move continues the trend started under President Trump, who had previously imposed sanctions on ICC officials.
  1. India’s Position and Broader Global Response
  • At the recent BRICS Summit, India joined other countries in condemning excessive violence in Gaza, signaling balanced multilateral diplomacy.
  • India, while not a member of the ICC, supports sovereign equality and non-interference, key principles threatened by such U.S. actions.

Way Forward

  • Strengthen international legal institutions: Ensure that bodies like the ICC and UNHRC are free from geopolitical coercion.
  • India must support multilateralism: As a rising global power, India should play a proactive role in defending the integrity of international institutions.
  • UN reforms: Democratization of global bodies to prevent unilateral actions and ensure legitimacy and fairness.

Conclusion

The U.S. sanctions against Francesca Albanese represent a disturbing encroachment on multilateral independence and set a dangerous precedent where global governance is threatened by unilateral might. The need of the hour is not silencing dissent but restoring faith in international institutions, ensuring accountability, and working collectively for peace, justice, and global stability — values that resonate with India’s traditional foreign policy outlook.

Syllabus Link (GS Paper II):

  • International relations – Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • Important international institutions, agencies and fora – their structure, mandate
  • India and its neighborhood – relations and role in multilateral forums

Previous Year Linkage:

  • UPSC Mains GS II 2020: “What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘trade war’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?”
  • UPSC Mains GS II 2019: “Do you think that India’s foreign policy is aimed at promoting its national interest by giving moralistic dimensions to it? Justify your answer with suitable examples.”

Sources:

  • UN Human Rights Council Reports (2024–2025)
  • ICC Press Release on Jurisdiction (2024)
  • Ministry of External Affairs (India) – BRICS Summit Declaration 2025
  • The Hindu Editorial, July 2025
  • IGNOU MPS-001: International Politics

Introduction

Trade relations between India and the United States—two of the world’s largest democracies—are marked by both cooperation and friction. Recently, the U.S. administration has proposed a 10% tariff on imports from BRICS countries, including India, alongside higher tariffs on individual countries like Brazil (50%) and South Africa (30%). These unilateral trade moves pose significant challenges to India’s export competitiveness and multilateral trade architecture.

Body

Implications for India-U.S. Trade Relations

  • Policy Uncertainty & Investor Sentiment: Sudden tariff announcements undermine predictability in trade policy. This dampens investor confidence and may delay the finalisation of the proposed bilateral investment treaty (BIT).
  • Mini Trade Deal Under Stress: India and the U.S. have been working towards a “mini trade deal” covering key sectors like medical devices, agriculture, and ICT products. These tariff threats could derail ongoing negotiations.
  • Strategic Paradox: While India and the U.S. collaborate under strategic platforms like QUAD and IPEF (Indo-Pacific Economic Framework), such protectionist measures raise questions about the credibility of economic cooperation.
  • Impact on Indian Exports: India exported $78.54 billion worth of goods to the U.S. in FY23 (source: Department of Commerce). Tariffs may hit sectors like pharmaceuticals, textiles, engineering goods, which are major export earners.

Broader Trade Policy Concerns

  • Targeting BRICS Weakens Global South Unity: As a founding BRICS member, India is part of a larger South-South cooperation platform. A U.S. strategy that targets BRICS countries individually may strain India’s balancing act between the Global North and South.
  • Challenge to WTO Norms: Unilateral tariff imposition violates the WTO’s Most Favoured Nation (MFN) principle, affecting India’s ability to rely on multilateral dispute settlement mechanisms.
  • Geoeconomic Fallout: The move may push BRICS countries closer to forming alternative trade alliances excluding the U.S., weakening Western influence in emerging markets.

Way Forward

  • Expedite Trade Negotiations: India must continue to engage with the U.S. to finalise the mini trade deal and push for progress on a broader comprehensive economic partnership.
  • Use WTO Channels: India should lodge concerns at the WTO, possibly in coordination with other BRICS members, to uphold rules-based trade.
  • Diversify Trade Partners: India should deepen economic ties with EU, ASEAN, Latin America, and African nations, reducing overdependence on any single market.
  • Enhance Domestic Competitiveness: Focused reforms in logistics, manufacturing, and ease of doing business will help Indian exporters remain competitive even under adverse tariff regimes.

Conclusion

The recent U.S. tariff proposals, if implemented, could significantly disrupt India-U.S. trade dynamics and multilateral trade norms. India must employ a dual strategy of assertive diplomacy and strategic diversification to safeguard its economic interests while continuing to work towards rules-based international trade order.

Linked Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II: India and its Bilateral Relations
  • GS Paper III: Indian Economy – Trade, WTO, External Sector, Investment Models

Previous Year Questions Linked:

  • “Discuss the impact of protectionist policies of developed countries on India’s export prospects.” – UPSC GS Mains 2018
  • “Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.” – GS Paper II, static theme
  • “What are the challenges to WTO’s multilateralism?” – UPSC GS Mains 2021

Sources:

  • Department of Commerce, India
  • USTR Reports
  • WTO (2023-24 updates)
  • Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), India
  • DPIIT Policy Briefs (2024)

Introduction

India-U.S. trade relations form a crucial axis of India’s external economic engagement. However, recent unilateral tariff announcements by the U.S., including a proposed 10% blanket tariff on BRICS nations and specific import duties (e.g., 50% on Brazil, 30% on South Africa), complicate negotiations on the ongoing “mini” trade deal and bilateral investment treaty (BIT). This reflects a broader trend of rising protectionism and transactional diplomacy in global trade.

Body

Current Challenges in India-U.S. Trade Negotiations

  • Unpredictability in U.S. Trade Policy: President Trump’s announcement of additional tariffs on BRICS members has created ambiguity about ongoing trade talks, particularly when letters already propose country-specific tariffs. The lack of clarity on whether this 10% is in addition to earlier figures creates strategic confusion for Indian policymakers.
  • Trust Deficit and Deal Uncertainty: According to Global Trade Research Initiative, the U.S. may revisit even signed deals, which undermines trust in bilateral agreements and questions the sanctity of negotiated trade deals.
  • Sectoral Impact: U.S. is India’s largest export destination with $78.54 billion exports in FY23 (Ministry of Commerce). High tariffs may impact key sectors like textiles, engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, and copper exports—the latter facing a proposed 50% U.S. tariff.
  • Geopolitical Cross-Pressures: India’s balancing act between BRICS engagements and strategic alignment with the U.S. (e.g., QUAD, IPEF) is being tested. A tariff targeting BRICS countries challenges India’s multilateral commitments.
  • Trade Diplomacy Fatigue: The ongoing negotiations—India’s third diplomatic mission to the U.S. in recent months—reflect persistent engagement but limited breakthrough, given the volatility in U.S. stance.

Way Forward

  • Seek Clarification through Dialogue: India must demand transparent communication from the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) to understand the scope and applicability of the proposed BRICS tariff.
  • Push for Rules-Based Trade: India should raise these concerns at WTO platforms, especially as such unilateral tariffs violate Most Favoured Nation (MFN) obligations.
  • Diversify Trade Relationships: India should enhance economic ties with EU, ASEAN, Latin America, and Africa, reducing strategic overdependence on the U.S.
  • Enhance Domestic Competitiveness: Invest in PLI schemes, logistics modernization, and ease of doing business to improve export resilience, irrespective of tariff shocks.
  • Leverage Multilateral Platforms: Use forums like G20, BRICS+, and IPEF to build coalitions against protectionist tendencies and for stable global supply chains.

Conclusion

While India continues to value its trade partnership with the U.S., the recent wave of tariff threats underscores the fragility of bilateral deals in the face of domestic populism and strategic recalibration. A prudent mix of strategic engagement, institutional multilateralism, and export diversification is vital for India to safeguard its economic interests and uphold a fair global trade order.

Linked Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II: India and its Bilateral Relations
  • GS Paper III: Indian Economy – External Sector, Trade Agreements, WTO

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • GS II (2018): “Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.”
  • GS III (2018): “How is India responding to protectionist tendencies in world trade?”
  • GS II (2020): “What are the challenges to India’s foreign trade in the present global scenario?”

Sources:

  • Ministry of Commerce, Government of India
  • Global Trade Research Initiative
  • WTO Trade Policy Review (2024)
  • USTR and Department of Commerce (U.S.)
  • The Hindu (T.C.A. Sharad Raghavan, 2025)

Introduction:
BRICS—originally comprising Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—has emerged as a significant grouping representing the voice of the Global South. With its expansion in the 17th Rio Summit (2025), including Egypt, Ethiopia, UAE, Iran, and Indonesia, BRICS now represents nearly 50% of the world’s population, 40% of global GDP, and a quarter of global trade (Source: IMF, BRICS Rio Declaration 2025). Despite intra-group rivalries and external geopolitical tensions, the summit reaffirmed its commitment to multilateral reform, economic cooperation, and global governance restructuring.

Body:

Key Outcomes of the Rio BRICS Summit (2025):

  • Unified Stand on Global Conflicts:
    • Condemned the Israel-Gaza escalation and U.S.-Israel strikes on Iran, emphasizing the need for nuclear safety and peace.
    • Reinforced the group’s independent foreign policy approach, despite U.S. pushback.
  • Security and Counter-Terrorism Cooperation:
    • Strong reference to cross-border terrorism and condemnation of the Pahalgam terror attack, with backing for India’s anti-terror stance.
  • Institutional Reforms:
    • Endorsement for greater roles of India and Brazil at the UN Security Council, aligning with the long-standing demand for democratization of global governance institutions.
  • Global Economic Governance:
    • Strong criticism of the U.S.’s tariff impositions, signaling BRICS’ opposition to protectionism.
    • Resolutions on energy security, climate change, and WTO reforms, affirming BRICS’ vision for an equitable global economic order.
  • Space for Middle Powers:
    • Absence of Russian and Chinese Presidents created a platform for India, Brazil, and South Africa to steer consensus within the group.

Challenges for BRICS and India:

  • Internal Discord:
    • Differences on UNSC expansion language between African members and others.
    • Divergence on currency de-dollarisation, with India distancing itself while Brazil advocated assertively.
  • Geopolitical Tensions:
    • U.S. perception of BRICS as anti-West and threats of 10% additional tariffs, particularly impacting India’s trade negotiations.
  • Leadership Vacuum:
    • Strategic recalibration required amid Russian isolation and Chinese economic slowdown, placing more responsibility on India and Brazil.

Way Forward for India’s BRICS Presidency (2026):

  • Rebrand BRICS for Global South: Leverage Modi’s acronym—“Building Resilience and Innovation for Cooperation and Sustainability”—to promote inclusive development and multilateralism.
  • Enhance Developmental Cooperation: Strengthen BRICS institutions like New Development Bank (NDB) and BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement for south-south cooperation.
  • Strategic Autonomy: Maintain non-alignment in contentious issues while balancing ties with the U.S. and China.
  • Digital and Climate Diplomacy: Push for digital public infrastructure collaboration and collective climate action financing.

Conclusion:

The 2025 Rio Summit underscored the cohesion and growing assertiveness of BRICS despite geopolitical fissures. As India takes over the presidency, it has the opportunity to steer BRICS as a platform for democratic multilateralism, address developmental inequities, and champion the interests of the Global South through strategic, sustainable, and inclusive leadership.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • General Studies Paper II:
    • International Relations: Regional and global groupings
    • India and its neighborhood—relations
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

Previous Year Linkage:

  • 2020: “‘Multilateralism’ is under stress.” In this backdrop, discuss the significance of BRICS.
  • 2014: “The expanding strategic partnership with Africa is a win-win for both sides.” Comment with reference to India.

Sources:

  • Rio Declaration 2025 (official summary)
  • IMF World Economic Outlook 2024
  • MEA India – BRICS Press Briefings
  • IGNOU: International Relations (IR) Course Material
  • ORF and IDSA analysis on BRICS expansion

Introduction:

India’s foreign policy has traditionally balanced strategic interests with moral positioning, including support for Palestinian sovereignty while maintaining diplomatic ties with Israel. However, recent global surveys and geopolitical developments highlight a perceived shift in India’s posture, especially during the ongoing Israel-Gaza conflict, raising concerns about ethical accountability and global expectations of India as a rising power.

Body:

India’s Position on the Gaza Crisis:

  • As per Pew Research Center (2024), only 29% of Indians expressed an unfavourable view of Israel, indicating limited domestic criticism despite ongoing humanitarian crises in Gaza.
  • India has shown strategic restraint, often abstaining in UN resolutions critical of Israel. It has simultaneously avoided explicit condemnation of Israeli actions while emphasizing dialogue.
  • India’s engagement includes:
    • Deep defence ties with Israel (India is among the largest importers of Israeli arms; SIPRI 2023).
    • Deployment of Indian workers to replace displaced Palestinian laborers in Israel (MEA 2024).
    • Suppression of domestic protests critical of Israel in some instances, reflecting diplomatic sensitivities.

Ethical and Strategic Dilemmas:

  • India’s historical solidarity with Palestine, rooted in Non-Aligned Movement and Gandhian values, is increasingly at odds with realpolitik.
  • Gaza’s humanitarian catastrophe—with over 50,000 civilian deaths, and destruction of health, education, and communication infrastructure—raises moral obligations under international humanitarian law.
  • Strategic alignment with Israel ensures access to surveillance tech, counter-terrorism cooperation, and agricultural R&D, yet undermines India’s traditional Global South leadership role.

Silencing of Dissent and Global Media Dynamics:

  • Mainstream media in India underreporting Gaza atrocities aligns with state narratives.
  • Social media algorithms (e.g., X/Twitter) often suppress posts critical of Israel, limiting civil society engagement.

Solidarity vs. Self-Interest:

  • While Palestinian society displays resilience, reports show growing isolation and global apathy.
  • Drèze’s argument contrasts Gaza’s grassroots solidarity with the rampant capitalist greed of elites in the Global North, portraying a moral vacuum in global leadership.

Way Forward:

  • Recalibrate strategic-moral balance: Uphold India’s traditional support for Palestine while continuing pragmatic ties with Israel.
  • Strengthen humanitarian diplomacy: Push for ceasefire and aid corridors via multilateral platforms (e.g., BRICS, G20).
  • Engage civil society and media: Promote informed discourse and enable public debate on humanitarian issues.
  • Champion multipolar morality: As India aspires for UNSC membership, it must exhibit leadership in global justice and peace advocacy.

Conclusion:

India stands at a crossroads of moral responsibility and strategic calculation. The Gaza tragedy is not just a geopolitical issue but a test of India’s civilisational ethos and global ambition. To lead with credibility, India must align its foreign policy compass not only with national interest, but also with humanity and justice—values it has historically championed.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • General Studies Paper II – International Relations
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
    • India and its neighborhood – relations

Previous Year Linkage:

  • 2017: “Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America.” Comment in the context of India’s soft power.
  • 2021: “Critically examine the role of India in supporting democratic values globally.”
  • 2022: “Discuss India’s stand on recent international conflicts in the context of strategic autonomy and morality in foreign policy.”

Sources:

  • Pew Research Center Global Attitudes Survey, 2024
  • SIPRI Arms Transfer Database, 2023
  • Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) India Briefs on Israel Relations, 2023–2024
  • UN OCHA Gaza Humanitarian Report, April 2024
  • Jean Drèze, The End of Humanity, The Hindu (2024)
  • IGNOU International Relations Course Material

Introduction:

India and Brazil, two large democracies from Asia and Latin America respectively, share a long-standing and deepening strategic partnership, institutionalized in 2006. Their cooperation spans political, economic, technological, and multilateral domains. In the face of rising global instability, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during his 2025 visit to Brazil, reaffirmed the relationship as an “important pillar” for the Global South and global governance, advocating for dialogue, diplomacy, and democratic cooperation.

Body:

  1. Key Areas of India-Brazil Cooperation:
  • Bilateral Trade and Economy:
    • Target set to increase bilateral trade to $20 billion in five years, from approximately $12.2 billion in FY 2024–25.
    • Focus sectors: agriculture, pharmaceuticals, renewable energy, fintech.
  • Multilateral Coordination:
    • Strong coordination in BRICS, G20, IBSA, and the United Nations.
    • Joint advocacy for reformed multilateralism, especially in the UN Security Council (as part of the G4 grouping).
  • Terrorism and Security Cooperation:
    • Both countries called for “zero tolerance and zero double standards” on terrorism.
    • A bilateral agreement was signed to enhance cooperation in counter-terrorism and defence industry collaboration.
  • Technology and Digital Payments:
    • Brazil and India are working to implement India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI) in Brazil, boosting digital financial inclusion.
  • Renewable Energy and Environment:
    • Signed agreements on renewable energy, leveraging mutual strengths in biofuels, solar energy, and green technology.
  • Knowledge and Intellectual Property:
    • Enhanced cooperation on intellectual property rights, critical for innovation and tech-driven trade.
  1. Strategic Relevance in Geopolitical Context:
  • South-South Solidarity: The partnership strengthens the voice of the Global South in multilateral forums on trade, climate justice, development finance, and food security.
  • Multipolar Global Order: India-Brazil convergence offers a democratic alternative to China-centric and Western-dominated global orders.
  • Resource Security: Brazil’s resource-rich economy and India’s growing demand—especially in critical minerals, agriculture, and energy—create a symbiotic supply chain.
  • Global Peace and Stability: Both advocate peaceful resolution of disputes, reinforcing their role as moderate, responsible powers in global affairs.

Way Forward:

  • Institutionalize 2+2 dialogues (Defence & Foreign Ministers) for strategic alignment.
  • Fast-track fintech cooperation, including UPI integration and joint AI projects.
  • Leverage private sector and state-owned enterprises for joint ventures in green technology and critical minerals.
  • Expand South-South initiatives through IBSA Development Fund and trilateral cooperation in Africa.
  • Promote cultural diplomacy, academic exchange, and tourism to deepen societal bonds.

Conclusion:

India-Brazil ties go beyond bilateralism. Their coordinated efforts in multilateral platforms, shared democratic values, and strategic collaboration make the partnership a model for South-South cooperation and a pillar of balanced, inclusive global governance. Strengthening this partnership aligns with India’s broader foreign policy goals of multipolarity, self-reliance, and global peace.

Syllabus Linkage (GS Paper II):

  • India and its bilateral relations
  • Global groupings involving India
  • Effect of policies of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
  • South-South cooperation and global governance

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2021 (GS II): “’Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European countries.’ Comment with examples.”
  • 2019 (GS II): “What are the challenges and opportunities in India’s relations with South America?”
  • 2015 (GS II): “Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically examine.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs (India-Brazil Joint Statement 2025)
  • PIB Press Release on India-Brazil Agreements
  • BRICS 2025 Summit Outcome Document
  • Trade Statistics: Ministry of Commerce & Industry (2024–25)

Introduction:

In a world increasingly marked by conflict, polarisation, and democratic retreat, the absence of principled and moral leadership has resulted in weakened institutions, eroded public trust, and a fractured global order. The crises in Ukraine, Gaza, and Iran–Israel underscore the failure of leadership to prioritise justice over raw power. In this context, morality-based democratic leadership rooted in human dignity, constitutionalism, and international law has become essential to steer societies through turbulent times.

Body:

  1. Moral Leadership: A Global Deficit
  • World leaders today often sacrifice principle at the altar of political expediency.
  • The erosion of international legal norms (e.g., UN Charter, Geneva Conventions) and the selective invocation of justice have led to strategic hypocrisy in foreign policy.
  • Militarised responses without addressing root causes have led to civilian casualties, radicalisation, and the collapse of the rules-based global order.
  1. Why Moral Leadership Matters:
  • Justice over Power: Leadership that prioritises justice, truth, and human dignity fosters sustainable peace.
  • Democratic Resilience: Moral leadership revives collegiality, modesty, and ethical governance, foundational to strong democracies.
  • Global Credibility: Moral consistency enhances a nation’s soft power and legitimacy on the global stage.
  1. India’s Example and Promise:
  • Mahatma Gandhi embodied transformative, non-violent, conscience-driven leadership that reshaped global resistance politics.
  • India’s civilisational values (Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam) and democratic continuity through adversity give it a unique platform to advocate international morality.
  • India’s economic weight, nuclear capacity, and G20 leadership enhance its ability to balance strategic autonomy with moral diplomacy.

Way Forward:

  • Institutionalise Ethical Governance:
    • Strengthen code of conduct for public officials, ensure transparent policymaking, and uphold constitutional morality.
  • Global Leadership by Example:
    • India must take principled stances on conflict resolution, climate justice, and humanitarian crises at the UN and BRICS.
  • Educate Future Leaders:
    • Embed civic education, ethics, and moral philosophy in academic and administrative training.
  • Revive Political Collegiality:
    • Restore cross-party dialogue, respect for institutions, and civil discourse in domestic politics.
  • Champion Democratic Consensus:
    • Reaffirm democratic values even while exercising decisive leadership, particularly on polarising issues.

Conclusion:

As the world navigates rising authoritarianism, moral ambiguity, and geopolitical turbulence, moral leadership rooted in truth, justice, and human dignity is not a utopia, but a necessity. India, as a civilisational democracy with strategic heft and Gandhian legacy, is uniquely positioned to lead by example, uphold global justice, and reinvigorate the idea that politics must serve a moral purpose larger than power.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II:
    • Governance and Leadership
    • Role of Civil Services and Political Executive in a Democracy
    • International Relations and Global Institutions
    • India’s role in promoting global peace, justice, and rule of law

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS II): “Highlight the role of the Vice President of India as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS II): “The role of individual leadership in transforming society has always been critical in Indian democracy. Discuss with examples.”
  • UPSC Mains 2016 (GS II): “Discuss the role of ethics and morality in politics.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs – India’s G20 and UN statements (2023–25)
  • Constitution of India – Preamble and Fundamental Duties
  • UN Charter and Geneva Conventions
  • Ashwani Kumar, The Hindu Editorial (July 2025)
  • IIPA Governance Reports

Introduction

BRICS, an acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, represents major emerging economies that collectively account for over 40% of the world’s population and about 25% of global GDP. In recent years, India has increasingly leveraged BRICS as a platform to raise key international concerns, including cross-border terrorism, and the need for reform of global governance institutions, particularly the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).

Body

India’s Concerns Highlighted at the BRICS Summit

  • Terrorism as a Global Threat:
    At the recent BRICS summit in Rio de Janeiro, PM Modi reiterated India’s concern over cross-border terrorism, especially in the context of attacks such as the Pahalgam terror incident.
    • The Leaders’ Declaration condemned terrorism in all forms and called for early finalization of the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) at the UN.
    • BRICS acknowledged terrorism as a global menace requiring multilateral action.
  • Need for Reform in Global Governance:
    • PM Modi stressed that two-thirds of humanity remains underrepresented in global institutions like the UN, IMF, and World Bank, originally designed in the 20th century.
    • India, along with Brazil, sought greater participation in the UNSC, with support from Russia and China—a notable diplomatic achievement.
    • Emphasis was placed on the Global South’s need for credibility and voice in decision-making platforms.
  • Expansion of BRICS & Representation:
    • The inclusion of Indonesia as a new member reflects BRICS’ effort to be more inclusive and dynamic, aligning with India’s vision for a multipolar and equitable international order.
  • Geopolitical Standpoints Aligned with India:
    • BRICS leaders criticized unilateral military actions, including U.S.-Israel strikes on Iran, as violations of international law and UN Charter, resonating with India’s commitment to sovereignty and multilateralism.
    • On the Israel-Palestine conflict, BRICS reaffirmed support for the two-state solution—a stance that aligns with India’s balanced Middle East diplomacy.

Way Forward

  • Strengthening BRICS Institutional Capacity:
    India should advocate for setting up a counter-terrorism working group within BRICS for intelligence-sharing and policy alignment.
  • Push for CCIT Finalization at UN:
    With multilateral backing, India can lead negotiations to finalize CCIT, which has been pending since 1996 due to definitional issues around terrorism.
  • Expand Global South Cooperation:
    India should foster stronger coalitions within the Global South, using BRICS+ as a framework to amplify concerns in forums like the G20, UNGA, and IMF.
  • Diplomatic Balancing:
    As India navigates partnerships with both the West and Global South, it must continue a non-aligned yet assertive diplomacy, using BRICS as a counterbalance to Western hegemony.

Conclusion

The recent BRICS summit demonstrated India’s successful use of multilateral platforms to spotlight pressing issues like cross-border terrorism and inequitable global governance. By securing diplomatic support from major powers and pushing for systemic reforms, India is asserting its global leadership aspirations. Continued engagement with BRICS and similar forums will be vital to shaping an inclusive, rules-based international order.

Linked Syllabus

  • GS Paper II – International Relations
    • India and its neighborhood- relations
    • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings and agreements involving India
    • Important International institutions, agencies, and fora—their structure and mandate

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS II): “’Multilateralism is under strain’. In this context, discuss the significance of BRICS for India.”
  • UPSC Mains 2017 (GS II): “India’s contribution to the UN peacekeeping operations has been a noteworthy part of its foreign policy.”
  • UPSC Mains 2016 (GS II): “The broader objectives and achievements of BRICS as a grouping.”

Sources:

  • BRICS 2025 Summit Declaration
  • Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India
  • UNCTAD, IMF Reports (2024-25)
  • IGNOU Notes on India’s Foreign Policy and Multilateral Diplomacy

Introduction

In recent years, India has actively pursued a South-South cooperation strategy, emphasizing solidarity among developing nations to reshape a more equitable global order. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s recent visits to Ghana, Trinidad & Tobago, and Argentina, en route to the BRICS summit in Brazil, underscore this shift. These engagements aim to diversify India’s partnerships, secure strategic resources, and promote low-cost Indian innovations in public health, digital infrastructure, and disaster resilience—positioning India as a leader of the Global South.

Body

Key Strategic Highlights of the Visits

  1. India-Ghana Partnership:
    • Elevated to a Comprehensive Partnership, with cooperation in vaccines, pharma, and digital infrastructure.
    • India extended support to develop Ghana into a vaccine hub for West Africa, leveraging India’s global reputation in generic pharmaceuticals.
  2. Trinidad and Tobago:
    • MoU signed on Indian pharmacopeia to expand access to affordable and high-quality generic medicines.
    • Cultural diplomacy was visible in PM Modi’s address to the Indian diaspora, reaffirming their role in strengthening India’s global influence.
  3. Argentina:
    • Strategic discussions on critical minerals (like lithium) and shale gas cooperation.
    • India offered to deepen pharma and digital collaborations, aiming to reduce dependency on Western pharmaceutical and tech firms.

Multilateral and Ideational Context

  • The visits align with India’s efforts to reimagine global governance beyond the dominance of the Global North.
  • These countries share anti-colonial histories and are committed to Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) ideals and South-South solidarity.
  • India promotes inclusive global mechanisms such as:
    • Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
    • International Solar Alliance (ISA)
    • Advocacy for UNSC reforms for better Global South representation

India’s Long-Term Strategy

  • Building economic resilience by tapping into non-traditional markets for trade, energy security, and critical minerals.
  • Expanding India’s leadership role in alternative economic coalitions like BRICS, IBSA, and Global South Summits.
  • Strengthening diaspora diplomacy as a soft power asset—PM Modi referred to the 35 million Indian diaspora as India’s “pride.”

Way Forward

  • Institutionalizing South-South Cooperation through regular summits, development funds, and digital knowledge exchanges.
  • Strategic investments in education, skill-building, and energy in partner countries to build long-term goodwill.
  • Using platforms like G20 Presidency, BRICS+, and SCO to amplify Global South issues such as food security, debt reform, and climate justice.
  • Promoting Indian technologies (e.g., CoWIN, UPI) to create scalable models of development aid.

Conclusion

India’s outreach to the Global South is more than diplomatic symbolism—it marks a structural realignment in India’s foreign policy toward strategic autonomy, inclusive growth, and leadership in global equity discourse. These engagements foster mutual growth and build a multipolar world order that values shared histories and future aspirations.

Linked Syllabus

  • GS Paper II – International Relations
    • India’s foreign policy and global standing
    • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings and agreements involving India
    • Important international institutions and India’s role in shaping them

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2023 (GS II): “South-South cooperation is no longer just a diplomatic option but a necessity for India’s economic and strategic interests. Discuss.”
  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS II): “‘The time has come for India and Africa to deepen their relations.’ Comment with reference to India’s interest in African countries.”
  • UPSC Mains 2016 (GS II): “Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several Member States by Pakistan have escalated tensions. In this background, discuss the bilateral issues between India and Pakistan.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs (2024–2025 Bilateral Summaries)
  • BRICS and IBSA Declarations
  • PIB: India–Africa Cooperation Framework
  • UNCTAD South-South Cooperation Reports
  • IGNOU Notes on India’s Foreign Policy and NAM

Introduction

India’s foreign policy in West Asia—a region marred by overlapping conflicts, non-state actors, and geopolitical rivalries—has evolved to embrace strategic autonomy. This approach reflects India’s measured diplomacy, balancing humanitarian values, economic interests, and security concerns. The recent Israel-Iran tensions and the ongoing Gaza conflict showcase India’s ability to engage pragmatically without aligning blindly with any geopolitical bloc.

Body

India’s Measured Response to Israel-Iran and Gaza Conflicts

  • India has called for de-escalation and restraint while reaffirming that “this is not an era of war.”
  • Voted in favour of a permanent ceasefire in Gaza at the UN General Assembly.
  • Swiftly executed Operation Sindhu, evacuating Indian citizens, particularly medical students, from both Israel and Iran.
  • India’s response emphasizes humanitarian concerns, regional stability, and protection of diaspora, rather than moralistic posturing.

Rationale Behind Strategic Silence and Neutrality

  • Multilateral Partnerships:
    • Close defence cooperation with Israel.
    • Energy and trade relations with Iran.
    • Strong diaspora and investment ties with Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries.
  • Avoiding Entanglement in Proxy Conflicts:
    • Intervening or publicly siding with either Israel or Iran risks upsetting long-term strategic alignments.
    • Helps India maintain independent credibility across global forums, including BRICS, SCO, and the G20.
  • Security Calculations:
    • West Asia’s volatility, combined with the risk of nuclear proliferation, threatens regional and global peace.
    • India supports arms control, diplomatic de-escalation, and multilateral non-proliferation frameworks like the NPT.

Broader Geopolitical Context

  • Despite global condemnation of terrorism, western nations continue to support Pakistan militarily, ignoring its role in cross-border terrorism.
  • India’s recent Operation Sindoor, retaliating against Pakistan-led terror attacks, highlights the double standards in global diplomacy.
  • Arab nations, while expanding trade with India, often side with Pakistan due to religious and historical affinities, underscoring the complex dynamics India must navigate.

Way Forward

  • Strengthen strategic autonomy by increasing bilateral engagements with both Israel and Arab nations on technology, energy, and security.
  • Enhance humanitarian diplomacy through development aid, medical assistance, and evacuation protocols during conflict.
  • Promote rules-based multilateralism to reform global institutions that often reflect the geopolitical bias of the Global North.
  • Push for a regional peace framework in West Asia, promoting arms control, dialogue, and conflict resolution through forums like the UN and BRICS.

Conclusion

India’s measured and strategic approach to West Asia’s conflicts underlines a mature foreign policy driven by national interest, humanitarian concern, and global credibility. Rather than performative activism, India exercises quiet diplomacy, safeguarding its diaspora, advancing its economic interests, and preserving regional balance—all while upholding its core values. As India rises as a global player, strategic silence becomes not a weakness but a hallmark of calibrated diplomacy.

Linked Syllabus

  • GS Paper II – International Relations
    • India’s relations with neighboring and West Asian countries
    • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings and their influence on India’s interests
    • Role of diaspora in Indian foreign policy
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS II): “Critically examine the role of Indian diaspora in influencing India’s foreign policy.”
  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS II): “Evaluate the economic and strategic dimensions of India’s Look West Policy.”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS II): “What is meant by strategic autonomy? Discuss its relevance to India in the present context.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs (2024–25)
  • UN General Assembly Voting Records
  • Operation Sindhu and Operation Sindoor Reports (PIB)
  • IGNOU MA Political Science: India’s Foreign Policy and Regional Security
  • SIPRI Arms Transfers Database (2024)
  • Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) West Asia Brief

Introduction:

India’s renewed engagement with Trinidad and Tobago (T&T), marked by the signing of six key agreements during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s 2025 visit, underscores India’s commitment to South-South cooperation, regional development, and strengthening of India-CARICOM (Caribbean Community) ties. This diplomacy is not only symbolic of shared civilizational links but also aligned with India’s broader foreign policy vision of enhancing global South solidarity and expanding strategic influence in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC).

Body:

  1. Key Agreements and Areas of Cooperation:
  • Health and Pharma:
    • MoU on Pharmacopoeia cooperation; 20 dialysis units and 2 sea ambulances gifted to T&T.
    • Positions India’s pharma sector as a key healthcare partner in the Caribbean.
  • Digital & Education Infrastructure:
    • 2,000 laptops gifted to support T&T’s education digitisation drive.
    • Training programs for bureaucrats and diplomats to strengthen institutional capacities.
  • Agriculture and Natural Farming:
    • India donated $1 million worth agro-machinery.
    • Technical support for millet cultivation, seaweed fertilizer, and natural farming underlines India’s soft power and sustainable agriculture diplomacy.
  • Quick Impact Projects (QIPs):
    • India to fund up to 5 small-scale projects annually, capped at $50,000 each, accelerating local development.
  • Cultural and Religious Diplomacy:
    • Support for training Hindu priests (Pandits), preserving Indo-Caribbean cultural ties.
  • Geopolitical and Strategic Cooperation:
    • T&T joins India-led Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA).
    • Both nations reaffirmed cooperation against terrorism and stressed Global South solidarity.
  1. Significance in India’s Foreign Policy:
  • South-South Cooperation:
    Reinforces India’s leadership among developing nations, especially small island states.
  • Soft Power Diplomacy:
    Cultural and educational initiatives deepen people-to-people connect and diaspora engagement (40% of T&T’s population is of Indian origin).
  • Strategic Outreach to LAC:
    Broadens India’s presence in the Western Hemisphere, supplementing recent ties with Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico.
  • Economic Gateway:
    Opens doors for Indian industries, particularly pharmaceuticals, agri-tech, fintech, and capacity-building services in Caribbean markets.

Way Forward:

  • Institutionalize India-CARICOM Forum:
    Create an annual India-CARICOM Summit to build sustained strategic dialogue.
  • Strengthen Trade and Investment Framework:
    Expand preferential trade agreements and provide lines of credit for infrastructure.
  • Collaborate on Climate Resilience:
    Jointly develop climate-adaptive technologies, given vulnerability of Caribbean states to disasters.
  • Establish Regional Centres of Excellence:
    Set up India-funded training hubs in T&T for diplomacy, healthcare, and sustainable agriculture.

Conclusion:

India’s expanding bilateral engagement with Trinidad and Tobago is emblematic of a mature foreign policy that balances national interest, development diplomacy, and cultural heritage. These partnerships strengthen India’s footprint in the Global South, support the UN SDGs, and foster mutual growth through technology transfer, capacity building, and inclusive development.

Syllabus Linkage (GS Paper II):

  • India and its neighborhood- relations
  • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
  • India’s engagement with the Global South and strategic partnerships

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2023 (GS II): “India’s foreign policy is increasingly guided by strategic autonomy and national interest.” Discuss with reference to recent international developments.
  • 2020 (GS II): “India’s engagement with African and Caribbean countries has gained momentum in recent years.” Discuss the significance.

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs – Press Release (July 2025)
  • India-CARICOM Joint Statements (MEA Archives)
  • India’s Foreign Trade Policy 2023–2028
  • UNCTAD South-South Cooperation Report (2024)
  • Global Biofuel Alliance and CDRI Membership Reports

Introduction:

The BRICS grouping—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—has expanded to include new members like Egypt, Ethiopia, UAE, Iran, and Indonesia. Amid growing calls for multipolarity and reform of global governance, BRICS is evolving from a coalition of emerging economies into a platform for strategic dialogue, developmental cooperation, and South-South solidarity. Contrary to speculation, the Rio BRICS Summit 2025 has confirmed there are no plans to launch a BRICS currency, although local currency trade options are being explored.

Body:

  1. Clarification on Currency and De-dollarisation:
  • No BRICS currency is currently planned, as clarified by Brazil’s Ambassador to India.
  • BRICS supports voluntary adoption of local currencies to boost intra-group trade and reduce dependence on the US dollar.
  • Existing models like MERCOSUR have successfully used local currencies for over two decades.
  1. Emerging Areas of Cooperation:
  • Climate change financing, AI regulation, and global health partnerships are key focus areas at the Rio Summit.
  • BRICS is also taking up issues like terrorism, with a likely reference to the Pahalgam attack in the final Leaders’ Statement.
  • The New Development Bank (NDB) and Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) are key institutional frameworks.
  1. Implications for India and the Global South:
  • BRICS offers India a platform to amplify the voice of the Global South, particularly in multilateral reform (UNSC, WTO).
  • India’s leadership on digital public infrastructure, AI, and biofuels is gaining visibility in BRICS.
  • Strategic cooperation with Brazil (110 bilateral missions in two years) in pharma, agriculture, energy, and defence shows real economic benefits.
  1. Internal Cohesion and Challenges:
  • Expansion brings diversity but also risks of divergence, especially on geopolitical alignments (e.g., China-Iran vs. India-UAE).
  • The absence of Presidents Putin and Xi at Rio raises questions about internal consensus.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutional Deepening:
  • Strengthen the New Development Bank with broader financing options and more inclusive representation.
  • Formalize BRICS+ mechanisms for engaging new members in a structured, phased manner.
  1. Focus on Deliverables:
  • Prioritize actionable areas such as digital finance, climate adaptation, and vaccine equity through pilot projects.
  1. Multilateral Reform Advocacy:
  • Use BRICS as a diplomatic bloc to push UN Security Council reform, where India enjoys broad support.
  1. Preserve Strategic Autonomy:
  • India must continue to balance BRICS engagement with its Western partnerships (G-20, Quad) to maintain strategic autonomy.

Conclusion:

BRICS may not be aiming to replace the dollar, but its growing agenda—ranging from climate financing and digital governance to inclusive development—is reshaping the international landscape. For India, BRICS remains a valuable forum to project leadership in the Global South, promote multipolarity, and pursue reform in global governance—all without compromising its sovereign foreign policy choices.

Syllabus Linkage (GS Paper II):

  • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings and agreements involving India
  • India and its neighborhood – International relations
  • Effect of policies of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
  • Important international institutions, agencies, and groupings

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2020 (GS II): “Critically examine the role of India in the evolving global order.”
  • 2017 (GS II): “BRICS has failed to live up to its initial potential.” Critically evaluate.

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs – BRICS Summit Brief (July 2025)
  • New Development Bank Reports (2024–25)
  • IMF De-dollarisation Trends Report (2024)
  • UNCTAD South-South Cooperation Framework (2023)
  • BRICS Joint Chair’s Summary – Foreign Ministers Meeting (April 2025)

 Introduction:

India has recently informed the World Trade Organization (WTO) about its decision to levy retaliatory tariffs worth $724 million on certain U.S. imports, in response to America’s unilateral tariff hikes on Indian automobile exports. This is a reflection of India’s assertive trade diplomacy and its reliance on WTO’s rules-based dispute resolution framework.

Body:

  1. Background of the Dispute:
  • On March 26, 2025, the United States imposed 25% additional tariffs on Indian-origin passenger vehicles, light trucks, and auto parts.
  • India contends that these are effectively safeguard measures, which are governed by the WTO’s Agreement on Safeguards (AoS).
  1. Legal Basis of India’s Retaliatory Tariff Proposal:
  • As per Article 8 of the AoS, if a safeguard measure causes injury to another country and consultations fail, the affected country can suspend equivalent concessions.
  • India has claimed that the U.S. failed to notify the WTO about the tariff changes and no consultations occurred, violating Article 12.3 of the AoS.
  • India, therefore, reserves the right to suspend obligations up to the value of $724 million, equal to the trade loss caused.
  1. Strategic and Economic Rationale:
  • India’s move seeks to protect its automobile exports and domestic manufacturing from unfair trade barriers.
  • This comes during a sensitive phase in India-U.S. mini trade deal negotiations, indicating a calibrated but firm trade posture.
  1. WTO’s Role and India’s Stand:
  • India’s actions are consistent with its WTO commitments, showing adherence to multilateralism even amid rising global protectionism.
  • India is highlighting the need for WTO reform, especially around notification compliance and dispute consultations.

Way Forward:

  • Pursue Bilateral Dialogue: India and the U.S. should work towards a comprehensive trade deal to prevent escalation and promote stable economic ties.
  • Strengthen WTO Dispute Mechanism: India must push for restoring the WTO Appellate Body to ensure timely and fair resolution.
  • Diversify Export Markets: Reduce overdependence on a few partners to hedge against tariff shocks.
  • Invest in Value Addition: Enhance domestic competitiveness in auto parts and components to counterbalance external tariff barriers.

Conclusion:

India’s proposal to levy retaliatory tariffs on U.S. goods is a legally grounded and diplomatically strategic response within the WTO framework. As global trade faces increasing unilateralism, India’s emphasis on rule-based order and calibrated assertiveness will shape its economic diplomacy in a multipolar world.

Sources:

  • WTO Agreements (GATT 1994, Agreement on Safeguards)
  • Ministry of Commerce & Industry, GoI
  • The Hindu (July 2025)
  • Economic Survey 2024–25

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • GS II (2021): “WTO is facing existential challenges. Discuss the implications for developing countries like India.”
  • GS III (2020): “Examine the impact of tariff barriers on India’s export competitiveness.”
  • GS II (2018): “India’s trade relations with major economic blocs are facing headwinds. Discuss.”

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II:
    • India and its bilateral relations
    • International institutions – WTO
  • GS Paper III:
    • Indian Economy – Effects of liberalisation
    • International trade and trade agreements

Introduction

India’s growing role as a representative of the Global South reflects a transformation in its foreign policy from non-alignment to proactive global engagement. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s address to the Ghanaian Parliament marks a symbolic and substantive reaffirmation of India’s commitment to democratizing global governance, ensuring that the priorities of developing nations—particularly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America—are reflected in multilateral institutions.

Body

  1. Historical Roots of India’s Global South Engagement
  • Since the Bandung Conference (1955) and the Non-Aligned Movement, India has emphasized South-South solidarity.
  • Ghana and India share anti-colonial roots, and bilateral relations were established during Nehru and Nkrumah’s leadership in the 1950s.
  1. India’s Recent Efforts to Empower the Global South
  • G-20 Presidency (2023):
    • Instrumental in making the African Union a permanent member of G-20.
    • Hosted the Voice of Global South Summit with participation from 125 countries.
  • Developmental Diplomacy:
    • India offers Lines of Credit, IT training, and infrastructure support to African countries through EXIM Bank, ITEC, and MEA-Africa Division.
    • Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) such as UPI and Aadhaar being adapted for use in Africa and Southeast Asia.
  • UN Reforms:
    • Advocates expansion of the UN Security Council (UNSC) to include Global South representation, including India and African nations.
  • Shared Global Concerns:
    • Emphasizes collaboration on climate change, terrorism, cybersecurity, and pandemic preparedness—issues disproportionately affecting developing countries.
  1. Strategic Significance of Ghana Visit
  • First-ever speech by an Indian PM to Ghana’s Parliament.
  • Launch of the Ghana-India Parliamentary Friendship Society to strengthen parliamentary diplomacy.
  • Reinforces India’s commitment to a multi-aligned world rooted in partnership, not patronage.

Way Forward

  • Institutionalize the Voice of Global South Forum as an annual platform.
  • Collaborate on climate finance and technology transfer for sustainable development.
  • Push for greater Global South representation in the World Bank, IMF, and WTO.
  • Leverage digital public goods to bridge the North-South development divide.
  • Invest in people-to-people partnerships through scholarships, fellowships, and cultural exchanges.

Conclusion

India’s proactive outreach, particularly to Africa and the Global South, signals a shift in global power distribution toward multipolarity. As a bridge between the developed and developing worlds, India’s emphasis on inclusive global governance, rooted in shared development goals, reflects both its moral vision and strategic pragmatism. True global progress depends on giving equal voice and agency to those historically left out of the global high table.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • UPSC GS II 2023: “Discuss the role of India in shaping the reform of global institutions like the UN, WTO, and IMF.”
  • UPSC GS II 2020: “What is the significance of Indo-African relations in the context of India’s foreign policy?”
  • UPSC GS II 2016: “The global ‘commons’ such as the oceans, space and cyber space are facing increasing challenges. Discuss India’s role in safeguarding these ‘global commons’.”

Syllabus Link (GS Paper II):

  • India and its neighbourhood relations
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • Important international institutions, agencies and fora – their structure, mandate

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs: India-Africa Framework for Strategic Cooperation
  • G20 New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration, 2023
  • Prime Minister’s Ghana Visit – Press Information Bureau (July 2025)
  • Voice of Global South Summit Outcomes (MEA, 2023)

Introduction:

The Global South, comprising developing and emerging economies of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, has long sought equitable global governance. India’s proactive diplomacy in the BRICS grouping (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and its outreach to fellow Global South nations represents a shift towards multipolarity—a world order not dominated by a single superpower but shared by several influential states. As Prime Minister Modi stated during his five-nation visit in 2025, BRICS serves as a vital platform to create a more democratic and balanced world order.

Body:

  1. Role of India’s BRICS Engagement in Multipolarity:
  • BRICS nations account for over 40% of global population and nearly 25% of global GDP (World Bank, 2024), providing economic heft to challenge Western-dominated institutions like IMF and World Bank.
  • BRICS promotes reform of global institutions (UNSC, WTO, IMF), advocating for greater representation of the Global South.
  • Initiatives like the New Development Bank (NDB) and BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement counter Western financial hegemony.
  1. Strengthening Global South Ties – Modi’s 2025 Five-Nation Tour:
  • Ghana Visit:
    • Recognized with Companion of the Order of the Star of Ghana—symbolizing strategic partnership.
    • MoUs in health, energy, investment, and vaccine production cooperation to strengthen South-South development.
    • India supports Ghana’s aspiration to become the vaccine hub for Africa.
  • Trinidad and Tobago:
    • Cultural diplomacy by honoring 180 years of Indian indentured labour migration.
    • Awarded Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, affirming India’s global stature.
    • Deepening diaspora connect and bilateral development cooperation.
  • Namibia:
    • Political and historical solidarity; India supported Namibia’s anti-colonial struggle.
    • Engagement with African Union and support for continental development.
  • Argentina & Brazil (BRICS Summit Host):
    • Reiterated support for a multipolar world, with Brazil aligning on Global South priorities.
    • India used the summit to push for inclusive digital transformation, climate financing, and equitable trade mechanisms.
  1. Strategic Outcomes:
  • Enhances India’s soft power and leadership among Global South nations.
  • Provides geopolitical balance amid rising China–US tensions.
  • Supports India’s UNSC permanent seat aspiration through broader Global South coalition-building.

Way Forward:

  • India should:
    • Continue championing institutional reform in global governance.
    • Deepen economic and technological partnerships with Africa and Latin America.
    • Promote initiatives like India-Africa Growth Corridor and Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) for global south inclusion.
    • Enhance South-South multilateral platforms outside of Western alliances.

Conclusion:

India’s efforts under platforms like BRICS and its bilateral engagements with Global South nations reflect a conscious strategy to build a multipolar, inclusive, and just global order. By strengthening bonds through economic, cultural, and developmental diplomacy, India positions itself as a key architect of a future where power is equitably distributed, and voices of the developing world are amplified.

Linkage with UPSC Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II:
    • India and its neighborhood relations
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • UPSC Mains 2023 (GS II): “What is the significance of Indo-Pacific region in India’s foreign policy strategy?”
  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS II): “‘BRICS’ is considered as the voice of developing countries. Evaluate its potential and challenges.”
  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS II): “India’s foreign policy has been evolving in response to the global changes. Critically examine.”

Sources:

  • World Bank Data 2024
  • Ministry of External Affairs (Press Releases, 2025)
  • BRICS 2025 Summit Documents
  • PIB Press Notes (Modi’s Ghana, Brazil Visit, July 2025)
  • IGNOU: International Relations and South-South Cooperation modules

(GS Paper II – International Relations: Bilateral, regional and global groupings; Role of international institutions; India and its neighbourhood)

Introduction

On the sidelines of the SCO Defence Ministers’ Meet in Qingdao (June 2025), India declined to endorse a joint statement of the SCO, citing inconsistencies on counter-terrorism commitments. The refusal came after the Pahalgam terror attack, where 26 civilians, including a Nepali tourist, were killed by The Resistance Front (TRF)—a proxy of the UN-designated Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT).

Body

  1. India’s Concerns:
  • Cross-border terrorism: India has long raised concerns over state-sponsored terrorism, especially emanating from Pakistan. Mr.Rajnath Singh reiterated that some SCO members use terrorism as state policy.
  • Double standards within SCO:
    • India highlighted the lack of consensus within SCO on naming terror outfits or identifying sponsoring states.
    • Statements failed to acknowledge groups like LeT, JeM, or TRF, despite their UN designation.
  • Security doctrine and action:
    • India’s doctrine of zero tolerance to terrorism was reflected in Operation Sindoor (May 2025), aimed at dismantling cross-border terror infrastructure.
    • India asserted its right to self-defence under international law, citing Article 51 of the UN Charter.
  1. Implications of India’s Stance:
  • Positive assertion of national interest:
    • Enhances India’s image as a responsible global actor committed to real, not rhetorical, counter-terrorism.
    • Reinforces India’s principled diplomacy within multilateral forums.
  • Strained regional dynamics:
    • May create friction with China and Pakistan, both prominent SCO members.
    • Reduces the cohesiveness of the SCO’s counter-terrorism vision, especially when consensus is absent.
  • Impact on SCO’s credibility:
    • India’s refusal exposes the limitations of SCO as a security forum.
    • Raises global doubts on SCO’s ability to tackle non-state actors effectively.

Way Forward

  • Push for binding frameworks: India must advocate for a code of conduct within SCO that explicitly names and condemns terror groups and their state sponsors.
  • Build coalitions within SCO: Collaborate with Russia, Central Asian Republics, and Iran to isolate nations using terror as foreign policy.
  • Leverage other forums:
    • Use Quad, BRICS, and UNSC platforms to internationalise concerns over selective counter-terrorism.
    • Promote UN Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT), pending since 1996.
  • Continue precision counterterrorism operations: India’s calibrated use of force like Surgical Strikes (2016) and Balakot air strikes (2019), now followed by Operation Sindoor (2025), must continue to serve as credible deterrence.

Conclusion

India’s principled refusal to sign a non-committal SCO statement reflects a maturing foreign policy that values substantive action over symbolic unity. In an evolving regional order, India’s firm stand against terrorism, backed by operational capability and diplomatic clarity, is essential to preserve its national security and global credibility.

Link with Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • GS II, 2020: “India’s foreign policy has witnessed a significant transformation in recent years. Evaluate its impact on regional security.”
  • GS II, 2019: “What are the challenges to India’s internal security through land borders?”
  • GS II, 2016: “Discuss the success of India’s diplomatic efforts with reference to counter-terrorism.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of Defence Press Release, June 2025
  • The Hindu, SCO Meet Report, June 2025
  • United Nations Counter-Terrorism Measures
  • Operation Sindoor Coverage, May 2025

SCO Charter and Statements

Introduction

India and the U.S., two of the world’s largest democracies, have a growing strategic partnership. However, trade remains a sticking point, especially in sectors like agriculture and dairy. As the July 9 deadline for reimposing U.S. reciprocal tariffs nears, India remains non-committal, prioritizing national sensitivities over expedited deal-making.

Body

  1. Key Roadblocks in the Trade Deal
  1. Dairy Sector Sensitivities
    • India’s dairy industry is the world’s largest, but remains highly fragmented, employing over 80 million rural households.
    • The U.S. dairy lobby demands market access, but Indian stakeholders resist due to concerns over religious sensitivities (e.g., animal feed derived from bovine sources) and livelihood threats.
    • India’s stance is also shaped by past WTO experiences, where market opening led to price pressures on domestic producers.
  2. Agriculture Concerns
    • The U.S. seeks reduced tariffs and greater access to Indian markets for agri-exports like pulses, nuts, and grains.
    • India, however, maintains high tariff walls and price support mechanisms (like MSP) for ensuring food security and farmer welfare.
    • Any sudden liberalization could undermine domestic agriculture amidst already volatile rural incomes.
  3. Mini Deal vs Comprehensive Trade Deal
    • India is negotiating a “mini deal” ahead of a larger Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) expected later in the year.
    • Even partial deals face hurdles, as differences on digital trade, e-commerce regulation, and IP rights persist.
  1. India’s Strategic Posture
  • Despite the urgency, India is not “desperate”, as no other country has concluded similar deals with the U.S. recently.
  • Reverting to pre-April 2 tariff levels may not disproportionately affect India.
  • India seeks a fair, reciprocal arrangement, not a rushed compromise that would harm its rural economy or domestic manufacturing goals (Atmanirbhar Bharat).

Way Forward

  • Phased liberalization: Open up dairy and agriculture in stages, with adequate safeguards and quotas.
  • Strengthen domestic standards: Invest in traceability, testing, and certification to make Indian dairy globally competitive.
  • Farmer inclusion in trade talks: Involve cooperatives and producer groups in decision-making to build consensus.
  • Issue-based diplomacy: Separate high-conflict issues (e.g., dairy) from low-hanging fruit (e.g., digital trade norms) to build trust.

Conclusion

India’s caution in finalizing trade deals with the U.S., especially in sensitive sectors like dairy and agriculture, reflects a deliberate attempt to balance trade ambition with rural stability. A long-term, strategic approach that emphasizes fairness, inclusivity, and national interest will ensure India’s global integration without domestic disruption.

Syllabus Linkage – GS Paper II & III

  • GS II: Bilateral relations involving India
  • GS III: Effects of liberalization on the economy; Major crops and issues of MSP, subsidies, and trade

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

  • UPSC 2020 (GS II): “What are the challenges and opportunities in India-U.S. relations in the contemporary era?”
  • UPSC 2021 (GS III): “What are the reasons for low agricultural productivity in India? How can it be improved through reforms in input delivery and marketing?”

Introduction

India has a long tradition of safeguarding its citizens abroad through proactive diplomatic interventions, especially during geopolitical or humanitarian crises. The recent regional escalation in West Asia, particularly involving Iran and Israel post Operation Sindoor, has once again tested India’s crisis response framework, particularly in ensuring the safety of its large diaspora, including thousands of students and pilgrims.

Body

  1. Current Geopolitical Context
  • Rising hostilities in West Asia, with repercussions following Israel’s Operation Sindoor and regional retaliations, have increased security risks for foreign nationals, especially in Iran and Israel.
  • The situation remains fluid and unpredictable, leading to advisories and precautionary relocations of Indian citizens, notably students.
  1. India’s Evacuation and Safety Strategy
  • The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) has activated diplomatic channels, notably with Armenia, the UAE, and local Iranian authorities, to enable safe corridors.
  • Evacuation buses have started relocating students from key institutions like Tehran University of Medical Sciences and Islamic Azad University.
  • Border crossings such as Agarak in Armenia are being explored to reroute Indians safely.
  • The Indian Embassy in Tehran has:
    • Registered citizens through Google Forms,
    • Set up hotlines and social media groups,
    • Coordinated with universities for batch-wise evacuations,
    • Warned about visa permit expiry for short-term travellers due to limited mobility.
  1. Strategic and Logistical Challenges
  • Visa-free stays (14-day limit) pose risks for stranded short-term visitors.
  • Limited connectivity due to strained Iran-Turkiye and Iran-Azerbaijan relations complicates exit routes.
  • Monitoring and relocating 7,500+ students from diverse locations requires coordinated infrastructure and local support.
  • Diplomatic sensitivities in the region restrict overt military or direct evacuation options (e.g., Operation Ganga, Vande Bharat model not feasible here).
  1. Role of Diplomacy
  • Bilateral coordination with UAE and Armenia has proven essential in ensuring safe passages.
  • India’s emphasis on quiet diplomacy, respecting host countries’ sovereignty while pushing for humanitarian access, demonstrates mature foreign policy handling.

Way Forward

  • Institutionalise a crisis relocation protocol for overseas Indians, especially students in conflict zones.
  • Strengthen bilateral evacuation MoUs with nations along potential conflict routes.
  • Develop a dynamic evacuation alert app under MEA’s MADAD or eMigrate platforms, integrating embassy alerts and logistics.
  • Encourage students to register mandatorily with embassies while going abroad for studies.
  • Invest in diaspora coordination cells in embassies with real-time response teams.

Conclusion

India’s response to the Iran-Israel crisis exemplifies its growing capacity for humanitarian diplomacy and diaspora protection. In a volatile geopolitical environment, ensuring the safety of Indians abroad not only reflects on India’s soft power but also strengthens global trust in its crisis management capabilities. The current case should serve as a template for creating a robust, technology-driven, and preemptive framework for overseas citizen safety.

Syllabus Linkage:
GS Paper II – India and its neighbourhood; Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India
GS Paper II – Role of the Indian diaspora
GS Paper III – Internal security; disaster and crisis management in foreign territories

 PYQ Linkages:

  • Q. What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism? (GS II, UPSC 2019 – indirect diaspora concern)
  • Q. Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries. Comment. (UPSC 2020)

Introduction

The 2025 G7 Summit in Kananaskis, Canada, takes place amidst significant geopolitical and economic strain. With President Donald Trump’s protectionist stance and divergence on key global issues—ranging from tariffs on Canadian goods to unilateral responses to West Asia and Ukraine—the summit reflects a growing struggle within the G7 to uphold its founding principles of collective leadership and multilateral cooperation. This not only undermines internal trust but also challenges the credibility of G7 in global governance.

Body

  1. Fault Lines within the G7
  • Trade tensions: Canada has warned of retaliation if U.S. tariffs on steel and aluminium are not lifted.
  • Diplomatic divergence: Despite Trump’s de-escalation efforts, Israel’s attack on Iran has worsened geopolitical instability, exposing cracks within the alliance.
  • Historical baggage: Echoes of the 2018 G7 in Charlevoix—when Trump withdrew from the final communiqué—linger, making the current summit highly tentative.
  1. Implications for Global Multilateralism
  • Erosion of credibility: The G7’s inability to issue united positions weakens its global standing on trade, climate, and security.
  • Fragmentation of supply chain initiatives: The summit’s goal of building critical mineral supply chains is at risk due to strategic distrust.
  • Opportunity for emerging powers: This weakening of Western consensus creates space for India, China, and the BRICS+ bloc to expand influence in global economic governance.
  1. India’s Strategic Perspective
  • India has a stake in stable, rules-based global institutions like WTO and IMF, which are often influenced by G7 dynamics.
  • Inconsistent G7 postures can affect global consensus on climate finance, technology transfers, and global health preparedness—key issues for India.

Way Forward

  1. Internal Reform of G7 Mechanisms:
    Establish a formal conflict-resolution protocol within G7 to mediate disagreements on trade or foreign policy.
  2. Strengthen G7–Global South Dialogue:
    Institutionalise outreach to India, Brazil, South Africa, and others to retain relevance in an evolving multipolar world.
  3. Recommit to Multilateral Norms:
    G7 must publicly recommit to WTO principles, climate agreements, and collective security mechanisms.
  4. Balance Leadership and Restraint:
    U.S. unilateralism must be balanced by constructive middle-power diplomacy from Canada, Japan, and the EU.

Conclusion

The 2025 G7 Summit reveals more than internal disagreements—it reflects the limits of old-world multilateralism in the face of new global realities. Unless the G7 adapts to this multipolar context with inclusive engagement and shared leadership, it risks becoming obsolete. For India and the Global South, this moment is not only a challenge to existing power structures but also an opportunity to advocate for a more equitable and representative global order.

Relevant GS-II Syllabus Topics:

  • India and its neighbourhood – relations
  • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • Role of international institutions and fora in global governance

Link with Previous UPSC Questions:

  • GS-II 2020: “Critically examine the role of multilateral groupings in shaping India’s foreign policy.”
  • GS-II 2019: “Discuss India’s role in promoting global peace amidst rising unilateralism.”
  • GS-II 2022: “Examine the changing nature of India’s engagement with global economic and political groupings in the 21st century.”

Introduction

India’s foreign policy has historically been rooted in non-alignment, anti-colonial solidarity, and moral diplomacy, championing peace, justice, and humanitarian values on global platforms. However, its abstention from the December 2023 and subsequent 2024 UN General Assembly resolutions calling for a ceasefire in Gaza has sparked criticism, especially given the humanitarian crisis unfolding in the region. The opposition, including Congress leaders, argue that this deviates from India’s ethical legacy and may undermine its credibility in multilateral fora like BRICS and SCO.

Body

  1. Traditional Position vs Present Abstention
  • Historical legacy: India was a vocal supporter of Palestinian rights, drawing from Gandhian non-violence and Nehruvian non-alignment.
  • Shift in stance: Since the late 2010s, India has developed closer ties with Israel, particularly in defense, agriculture, and technology, while also maintaining ties with Palestine.
  • Abstention impact: The abstention on the UNGA resolution demanding ceasefire and protection of civilians in Gaza is seen as a departure from moral diplomacy.
  1. Domestic and International Reactions
  • Congress critique: Party leaders like Anand Sharma and Priyanka Gandhi called it a “shameful reversal” of India’s anti-colonial and humanitarian stance.
  • Global isolation claim: India reportedly stood alone among BRICS and SCO members by abstaining, despite the bloc’s usual criticism of Western unilateralism.
  • Moral diplomacy concerns: Critics argue that India’s silence in the face of 60,000+ deaths (UN OCHA estimate, 2024) undermines its soft power and global moral leadership.
  1. Strategic Calculations
  • Balancing act: India seeks to maintain strategic partnerships with Israel (for defense tech) and the Arab world/Iran (for energy and diaspora links).
  • Geopolitical context: India’s abstention may reflect a desire to avoid taking sides amidst escalating Israel-Iran tensions, safeguarding its interests on both fronts.
  • Operation Sindoor precedent: India has engaged in humanitarian evacuations from conflict zones, showing commitment to its citizens’ safety, though falling short of global moral leadership.

Way Forward

  1. Reassert moral diplomacy: India must reaffirm its Gandhian and Nehruvian values in international platforms by calling for peace and civilian protection.
  2. Balanced engagement: Adopt a pro-humanitarian but non-partisan position, ensuring strategic autonomy while standing for international law.
  3. Leverage mediator role: India can act as a neutral peace broker in West Asia, leveraging goodwill with both Israel and Arab nations.
  4. Enhance parliamentary diplomacy: Encourage cross-party consensus on international humanitarian issues to project unity and credibility abroad.

Conclusion

India’s abstention from the UNGA Gaza ceasefire resolution may have been driven by strategic caution, but it has raised serious concerns about the erosion of its traditional foreign policy values. As a democracy with a legacy of moral leadership, India must balance realpolitik with humanitarian conviction to retain its credibility, leadership, and influence in the Global South and beyond.

Link with Previous UPSC Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS-II): “What is the significance of Indo-Israel relations? Discuss the role of India’s strategic interests in shaping its West Asia policy.”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS-II): “Do you think that India’s foreign policy is reflecting a shift from non-alignment to multi-alignment? Illustrate with examples.”
  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS-II): “‘India’s relations with Israel have of late acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.’ Discuss.”

Introduction

The Global South—a term representing developing nations primarily from Asia, Africa, and Latin America—has increasingly found a vocal advocate in India, especially amid global disruptions like the Russia-Ukraine war. At the G7 Outreach Summit 2025, Prime Minister Narendra Modi reiterated India’s commitment to amplifying the concerns of the Global South, particularly around energy security, inflation, and food crises.

Body

  1. India as the Voice of the Global South
  • Since the Ukraine crisis began in February 2022, India has highlighted how war-induced disruptions in oil, fertilizer, and food supply chains have disproportionately affected the developing world.
  • During India’s G20 presidency in 2023, PM Modi organized the “Voice of Global South Summit”, engaging leaders from over 120 developing countries to shape the global agenda inclusively.
  • At the G7 Summit 2025, India is expected to further advocate for fair access to critical technologies, sustainable finance, and global governance reforms.
  1. India’s Strategic Balancing Act
  • India continues to maintain close ties with Russia, evident in the upcoming visit of President Putin for the annual India-Russia Summit and the ongoing energy cooperation (Russia became India’s top crude oil supplier in 2023–24, meeting 35% of its import needs — Source: Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas).
  • Simultaneously, India engages diplomatically with Ukraine. The Modi-Zelenskyy meeting ahead of the Russian visit signals India’s commitment to multipolar engagement and conflict de-escalation.
  • India’s non-aligned position in the Ukraine war has preserved its strategic autonomy, allowing it to navigate both Western economic partnerships and Russian defense cooperation.
  1. The G7 and India’s Global Position
  • The G7 2025 Outreach Summit, hosted by Canada, focuses on “Protecting communities,” “Energy transition,” and “Digital partnerships”—all critical to the Global South’s sustainable development goals.
  • India’s participation underscores its role as a bridge between developed and developing worlds, especially as emerging economies contribute over 50% to global GDP growth (IMF, April 2025).

Way Forward

  1. Institutionalize Global South Advocacy: India can propose a G7–Global South Consultative Forum.
  2. Conflict Mediation Role: India could offer neutral platforms for Russia–Ukraine dialogue as a trusted voice.
  3. Push for Reforming Global Institutions: Advocate for UNSC reforms, expansion of G7 to include Global South nations, and fairer WTO rules.
  4. Leverage Digital and Green Diplomacy: Use the G7’s digital transition and clean energy themes to push India-led innovations in the Global South.

Conclusion

India’s G7 engagement reflects a strategic convergence of values and interests—promoting peace, development, and multipolarity while advocating for the Global South. As a credible and neutral power with ties across geopolitical divides, India is uniquely positioned to reshape global diplomacy in an era of great-power tensions.

Link with Previous UPSC Questions:

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2023 (GS-II): “What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India?” (Analytical thinking applied to systemic barriers, similar to geopolitical bottlenecks in diplomacy)
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS-II): “‘The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one involving global and strategic partnership that will have a great significance for the future.’ Comment.”

Introduction:

The re-election of Mark Carney’s Liberal Party in Canada has opened avenues for revitalizing India-Canada relations, which had deteriorated under Justin Trudeau due to Khalistani extremism and allegations surrounding Hardeep Singh Nijjar’s killing. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s congratulatory message emphasizing shared democratic values signals a diplomatic thaw.

Potential Areas of Cooperation:

  1. Trade & Economic Partnership:
    • Resuming negotiations on the India-Canada Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), stalled after the Nijjar controversy, could boost bilateral trade (currently ~$8 billion).
    • Collaboration in clean energy, technology, and critical minerals aligns with India’s economic diversification goals. (Relevant Syllabus: GS-II – Bilateral Agreements)
  2. Counterterrorism & Rule of Law:
    • The decline of pro-Khalistan voices (e.g., NDP’s Jagmeet Singh’s resignation) offers scope for joint counterterrorism efforts.
    • Strengthening extradition treaties and intelligence-sharing mechanisms to address extremism. (GS-III – Security Challenges)
  3. Multilateral Engagement:
    • Canada hosting the G7 Summit in Alberta presents an opportunity for India’s inclusion as a special guest, enhancing strategic dialogue. (GS-II – International Groupings)
  4. People-to-People Ties:
    • Over 1.6 million Indian diaspora in Canada act as a bridge; easing visa norms and academic collaborations can deepen ties. (GS-II – Diaspora)

Challenges:

  1. Khalistan Issue:
    • Canada’s perceived leniency towards Khalistani elements (e.g., Nijjar case) remains a friction point. (PYQ 2019: Discuss India’s challenges with Khalistani extremism abroad.)
  2. Rule of Law Concerns:
    • Canada’s allegations of Indian agents violating international law require careful diplomatic handling to avoid further escalation.
  3. Geopolitical Alignments:
    • Canada’s close ties with the US and China may influence its stance on trade and security issues vis-à-vis India.

Conclusion:

While the Carney government offers a chance to recalibrate relations, both nations must adopt a pragmatic approach—balancing economic cooperation with resolution of security disputes. As former High Commissioner Ajay Bisaria noted, this is an “inflection point” to rebuild trust and unlock mutual opportunities.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper-II: India and its neighborhood-relations; Bilateral agreements; Diaspora.
  • GS Paper-III: Security challenges (extremism), International economic groupings.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2023: “India’s diaspora diplomacy plays a crucial role in its foreign policy.” Discuss with examples.
  • 2019: Analyze the impact of Khalistani extremism on India’s relations with Canada and the UK.
  • 2017: Discuss the role of economic diplomacy in India’s bilateral relations with major powers.

Introduction

India has traditionally supported the Palestinian cause, recognizing the State of Palestine in 1988 and advocating a two-state solution. However, India’s abstention from the June 2025 UN General Assembly resolution calling for a ceasefire in Gaza—despite a staggering 55,000 civilian deaths—highlights a changing diplomatic stance. This abstention, coming just six months after India voted in favor of a similar resolution in December 2024, indicates a nuanced recalibration in India’s foreign policy amid complex geopolitical dynamics.

Body

  1. India’s Shifting Position
  • India was the only country in South Asia, BRICS, and SCO to abstain.
  • The abstention aligns with India’s consistent avoidance of votes explicitly critical of Israel, including similar abstentions in 2022, 2023, and early 2024.
  • India’s official statement emphasized “dialogue and diplomacy” as the preferred route, avoiding direct censure of either party.
  1. Implications for India’s Traditional Palestine Policy
  • Historically, India has maintained moral and diplomatic support for Palestine, including UNGA votes in favor of Palestine’s recognition and aid.
  • Abstention may be perceived as dilution of India’s pro-Palestine position, potentially weakening ties with Arab League countries that expect firm support for humanitarian ceasefires.
  1. Strategic Balancing in West Asia
  • Israel: India-Israel ties have deepened since 2014, especially in defense, agriculture, and tech cooperation. Abstention avoids diplomatic strain.
  • Arab States: Energy security, trade (~$240B annually), and diaspora (~8 million Indians in the Gulf) are critical. The abstention risks diplomatic discomfort with GCC nations like Saudi Arabia and UAE.
  • Iran: The ongoing Iran-Israel tensions further complicate India’s balancing act, particularly in light of delayed Chabahar investments and regional volatility.
  1. Multilateral and Domestic Repercussions
  • India’s global image as a “voice of the Global South” and moral actor in international fora may be questioned.
  • Domestic public opinion and opposition parties may critique perceived ambivalence in the face of a humanitarian crisis.

Way Forward

  1. Reaffirm Two-State Commitment: Clearly articulate support for a peaceful two-state resolution in upcoming platforms like the France-Saudi UN conference (June 17–20, 2025).
  2. Humanitarian Leadership: Increase humanitarian aid to Gaza through multilateral mechanisms like UNRWA and WHO to reaffirm India’s compassion-driven foreign policy.
  3. Strategic Dialogue: Maintain high-level engagements with both Israel and Arab states to navigate the complex West Asian matrix without compromising traditional positions.
  4. Multilateral Advocacy: Proactively participate in shaping a balanced narrative at the UN, promoting both civilian protection and counterterrorism concerns.

Conclusion

India’s abstention reflects a pragmatic shift prioritizing strategic autonomy and complex regional relationships. However, as a rising power claiming moral leadership on global issues, India must ensure its foreign policy choices are balanced with humanitarian values and rooted in long-standing commitments. Articulating its stance clearly and engaging in constructive multilateralism will be key to retaining credibility and influence in West Asia and beyond.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II – International Relations
    • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
    • India and its neighborhood
    • Important International Institutions (e.g., UNGA, UNRWA)

Relevant PYQs

  • GS II (2023): “Discuss India’s balancing act in West Asia amid Iran-Saudi Arabia tensions.”
  • GS II (2020): “India’s foreign policy has shifted from idealism to realism. Do you agree?”
  • GS II (2017): “Has India’s support to Palestine weakened after strengthening ties with Israel?”

 

Introduction

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), for the first time in 20 years, has officially censured Iran for non-compliance with its nuclear obligations. Passed by a majority vote on June 6, 2025, the resolution highlights Tehran’s failure to cooperate on safeguards and transparency, raising the specter of renewed geopolitical instability in West Asia, and potential re-imposition of UN sanctions. This move, spearheaded by the U.S., France, the U.K., and Germany, comes amid a collapsing Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) and growing regional militarization.

Body

  1. Significance of the IAEA Resolution
  • Global Non-Proliferation Concerns: The censure underscores the erosion of the non-proliferation regime, particularly after Iran enriched uranium up to 60% purity — a short technical step from weapons-grade (~90%).
  • UNSC and Sanctions Risk: Under UNSC Resolution 2231, failure to comply could lead to the “snapback” of pre-2015 UN sanctions, further isolating Iran.
  • Security Fallout: Iran’s vow to establish a new enrichment facility in a secure location, and ambiguous threats of “other measures,” could escalate tensions, especially with Israel and the U.S. preparing contingency plans.
  1. Regional and Global Implications
  • West Asia Instability: U.S. embassies in Jerusalem and Baghdad have already imposed movement restrictions, anticipating retaliatory actions or miscalculations.
  • Energy Markets: Iran’s isolation could disrupt oil markets, increasing volatility—particularly concerning for India, which imports ~80% of its crude needs (Source: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, 2024).
  • Weaponization Risk: The ambiguity around Iran’s “peaceful” intentions increases proliferation risk across West Asia (e.g., potential Saudi nuclear response).
  1. Implications for India
  • Energy Security: Prolonged sanctions on Iran may delay Chabahar Port development and reduce access to affordable Iranian crude.
  • Geostrategic Balancing: India faces a tightrope walk—balancing ties with the U.S. and Israel, while maintaining strategic autonomy and relations with Iran.
  • Diaspora and Security: Over 8 million Indian diaspora reside in the Gulf. Any conflict escalation threatens their safety and remittances (~$40B/year).

Way Forward

  1. Support Diplomatic Revival: India should support renewed negotiations on JCPOA 2.0 through platforms like BRICS or INSTC, promoting peace and stability.
  2. Energy Diversification: Strengthen strategic petroleum reserves and expand energy ties with Russia, the U.S., and Latin America.
  3. Security Preparedness: Enhance coordination with Gulf nations for diaspora protection protocols and evacuations (similar to Operation Ganga in 2022).
  4. Non-Aligned Advocacy: Promote non-aligned principles at the IAEA, urging neutrality and peaceful resolution over coercive action.

Conclusion

The IAEA’s censure of Iran reflects a deepening strategic fault line in West Asia with far-reaching consequences. While global non-proliferation must be upheld, punitive isolation alone may provoke further defiance. For India, the priority lies in ensuring regional peace, energy security, and protecting national interests through strategic diplomacy and multilateral engagement.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper II – International Relations:
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
    • India and its neighborhood relations.
    • International institutions (IAEA, UN).
  • GS Paper III – Security:
    • Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.

Relevant Previous Year Questions

  • 2023: “Iran nuclear deal has implications for India’s energy security and regional influence. Discuss.”
  • 2020: “Examine the effectiveness of the international nuclear non-proliferation regime in ensuring peace and stability.”
  • 2017: “Discuss India’s role in ensuring stability in West Asia amidst geopolitical shifts.”

Introduction

Dani Rodrik’s political trilemma (2000) posits that nations cannot simultaneously pursue deep globalization, national sovereignty, and mass democracy—they must choose two at the expense of the third. Western democracies, facing rising populism and institutional distrust, exemplify this crisis, while developing nations like India adopt alternative models.

Rodrik’s Trilemma in Western Democracies

  1. EU Model (Democracy + Globalization, Sacrificing Sovereignty):
    • The EU’s single market (GDP: $18.5 trillion) required member states to cede sovereignty in trade, migration, and monetary policy.
    • Backlash: Brexit and far-right movements (e.g., Germany’s AfD) reflect resentment against perceived economic inequities and loss of control.
  2. Technocratic Globalization (Globalization + Sovereignty, Sacrificing Democracy):
    • IMF-mandated austerity in Kenya (2022–23) prioritized fiscal discipline over public welfare, sparking protests.
    • Independent central banks (e.g., ECB) often override democratic preferences for stability.
  3. Bretton Woods Compromise (Democracy + Sovereignty, Limiting Globalization):
    • India’s mix of protectionism (e.g., PLI scheme) and controlled FDI mirrors this approach.
    • China’s state-capitalist model boosted growth but suppressed dissent (e.g., censorship of foreign media).

India’s Position

  • Balancing Act: India retains democratic institutions while cautiously engaging with globalization (e.g., Atmanirbhar Bharat).
  • Challenges: Trade deficits with China and U.S. pressure on WTO reforms test this equilibrium.

Conclusion

Rodrik’s trilemma underscores inherent tensions in modern governance. While the West struggles with democratic backsliding, India’s selective globalization offers lessons in preserving sovereignty—but long-term sustainability remains contested.

Key Analysis Points for UPSC:

  • Linkages: Connects IR (EU crisis), Polity (populism), and Economy (globalization debates).
  • Examples: Brexit, IMF in Kenya, India’s PLI scheme.
  • Critical Perspective: Questions whether any model can sustainably balance all three trilemma elements.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS Paper II (Governance):
    • “Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries”
    • “Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests”
  • GS Paper III (Economy):
    • “Effects of liberalization on the economy”
    • “Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development and employment”

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:

  • “Globalization has brought about a significant shift in the role of the state. Discuss.” (GS II, 2021)
  • “Critically examine the impact of globalization on the sovereignty of nation-states.” (GS III, 2019)
  • “The rise of populism in the West is a reaction to excessive globalization. Comment.” (GS II, 2017)

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Introduction:

The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed in 1960 between India and Pakistan, was brokered by the World Bank to resolve disputes over the sharing of river waters post-Partition. Despite its longevity, the treaty has faced criticism, geopolitical tensions, and calls for renegotiation due to changing regional dynamics, Pakistan’s non-compliance, and China’s dam-building activities.

Historical Context & Challenges:

  1. Post-Partition Dispute: The treaty emerged after the 1948 water conflict, where India stopped water flow to Pakistan, leading to the Inter-Dominion Accord. However, disputes persisted, necessitating World Bank mediation.
  2. Political Opposition: Even in 1960, Congress MPs from Punjab and Rajasthan criticized the treaty as a “surrender to Pakistan,” fearing adverse impacts on agriculture. Nehru defended it, calling critics “narrow-minded.”
  3. 1965 War & Mangla Dam: Pakistan’s construction of the Mangla Dam in PoK violated India’s sovereignty, testing the treaty’s resilience. Indira Gandhi reiterated India’s rights over PoK.

Contemporary Issues:

  1. Pakistan’s Non-Cooperation: Despite the treaty, Pakistan has blocked Indian hydro projects (Kishanganga, Ratle) under dispute resolution mechanisms.
  2. China’s Role: China’s mega-dams on Brahmaputra threaten downstream flows, raising concerns over water weaponization.
  3. Terrorism & Diplomatic Deadlock: After the 2016 Uri and Pathankot attacks, India considered revising the IWT. In 2023, India proposed modifications, but Pakistan refused.

Should India Reconsider the IWT?

  • Arguments for Review:
    • Pakistan’s misuse of treaty provisions to stall Indian projects.
    • China’s unilateral dam-building necessitates a strategic rethink.
    • National security concerns post-Pahalgam attacks (2025).
  • Arguments Against Abrogation:
    • International reputation: Unilateral exit may harm India’s global standing.
    • Downstream impact: Could escalate tensions and affect regional stability.

Conclusion:

While the IWT has provided relative stability, India must renegotiate terms to address contemporary challenges, ensuring sovereignty and water security without outright abrogation.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II (International Relations): India-Pakistan relations, transboundary water disputes, World Bank’s role.
  • GS Paper III (Security): Water as a strategic resource, China’s dam diplomacy.
  • GS Paper I (Post-Independence India): Nehru’s foreign policy, Indus Waters Treaty negotiations.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  1. “The Indus Waters Treaty is considered a success story of conflict resolution, yet it faces new challenges.” Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2019, GS-II)
  2. “China’s dam-building activities in the Himalayas pose a threat to India’s water security.” Examine. (UPSC Mains 2021, GS-III)
  3. “India’s foreign policy towards Pakistan has been a mix of engagement and coercion.” Analyze in the context of the Indus Waters Treaty. (UPSC Mains 2017, GS-II)

Introduction:

The Simla Agreement (1972), signed after the Bangladesh Liberation War, was a landmark bilateral pact aimed at resolving disputes between India and Pakistan peacefully. However, Pakistan’s repeated violations—such as supporting cross-border terrorism, Kargil War (1999), and internationalizing the Kashmir issue—have eroded its significance. Recently, Pakistan threatened to hold the Simla Agreement and other bilateral pacts in abeyance, raising concerns over regional stability.

Key Provisions of the Simla Agreement:

  1. Peaceful Resolution of Disputes: Both nations agreed to settle differences bilaterally without third-party intervention (UN or mediators).
  2. Line of Control (LoC): The ceasefire line was renamed as LoC, but Pakistan later violated it in Kargil.
  3. Recognition of Bangladesh: Pakistan formally recognized Bangladesh’s sovereignty.
  4. Prisoners of War (PoWs): India agreed to repatriate 93,000 Pakistani PoWs.

Pakistan’s Violations & Erosion of the Agreement:

  • Kargil War (1999): Pakistan’s military incursion across the LoC violated the pact.
  • Terrorism in Kashmir: Pakistan-backed groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) flouted the “peaceful means” clause.
  • Internationalization of Kashmir: Pakistan approached the UN, OIC, and other forums, contravening the bilateral dispute resolution mechanism.
  • Post-2019 Developments: India’s abrogation of Article 370 and Parliament’s 1994 resolution (declaring all of J&K as integral) further diminished the agreement’s relevance.

Recent Developments & Implications:

  1. Threat to Suspend Bilateral Agreements:
    • Pakistan’s warning affects pacts like:
      • Nehru-Liaquat Pact (1950) (minority rights).
      • Indus Waters Treaty (1960) (already under strain).
      • Ceasefire Agreement (2021) (could escalate border tensions).
    • Kartarpur Corridor (2019) remains unaffected for now.
  2. Impact on Kashmir:
    • If Pakistan disavows the LoC, India may reclaim Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
  3. Water Disputes:
    • India’s suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty may lead to Pakistan approaching international courts, calling it an “act of war.”

Conclusion:

The Simla Agreement’s decline reflects Pakistan’s unwillingness to adhere to peaceful bilateralism. While India has upheld its commitments, Pakistan’s state-sponsored terrorism and diplomatic posturing have rendered the pact ineffective. The current crisis underscores the need for stronger diplomatic and military deterrence to safeguard India’s interests.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus & Previous Year Questions:

Syllabus Linkages:

  • GS Paper II (International Relations):
    • India and its neighborhood relations.
    • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings involving India.
  • GS Paper III (Security):
    • Challenges to internal security (cross-border terrorism).

Previous Year Questions:

  1. “The Simla Agreement remains a cornerstone of India-Pakistan relations, yet its spirit has been repeatedly violated.” Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2018, GS-II)
  2. Examine the implications of India’s abrogation of Article 370 on its relations with Pakistan. (UPSC Mains 2020, GS-II)
  3. How has Pakistan’s use of cross-border terrorism affected bilateral agreements with India? (UPSC Mains 2016, GS-II)

Key Takeaways for UPSC Aspirants:

  • Simla Agreement was meant for peaceful bilateralism, but Pakistan’s actions (Kargil, terrorism) diluted it.
  • Post-2019 (Article 370 abrogation), Pakistan has sought to internationalize Kashmir, violating Simla’s spirit.
  • Current tensions threaten other agreements (Indus Treaty, Ceasefire, Religious Pilgrimages).
  • India’s options: Diplomatic pressure, military readiness, and leveraging upper riparian advantage in water disputes.

Introduction

Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), coastal nations can claim an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) up to 200 nautical miles from their baselines. Beyond this, they can seek an extended continental shelf (ECS) by submitting scientific evidence to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS). Recently, India modified its ECS claim in the Arabian Sea, increasing it by 10,000 sq. km while avoiding disputes with Pakistan.

India’s Extended Continental Shelf Claims

  1. Legal Basis under UNCLOS
    • UNCLOS permits nations to claim ECS beyond the EEZ if they prove geological continuity.
    • India’s 2009 submission covered the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean, and Arabian Sea, but faced objections from Pakistan (2021) over overlapping claims near Sir Creek.
    • The CLCS rejected India’s initial claim (2023), prompting a modified submission (April 2024) to secure undisputed areas.
  2. Strategic Modifications
    • India split its claim into two partial submissions, securing 10,000 sq. km in the central Arabian Sea while deferring disputed zones.
    • This aligns with India’s “non-dispute first” strategy, ensuring gains in uncontested regions.
  3. Geopolitical Implications
    • Pakistan: The Sir Creek dispute remains unresolved, but India’s modified claim avoids further complications.
    • Oman: Overlapping claims exist, but a 2010 agreement ensures no active dispute.
    • Myanmar & Sri Lanka: Similar ECS claims in the Bay of Bengal face challenges, requiring bilateral negotiations.

Significance for India

  • Economic: Secures rights to polymetallic nodules, hydrocarbons, and deep-sea minerals.
  • Strategic: Strengthens India’s maritime presence in the Arabian Sea, a critical trade and security zone.
  • Diplomatic: Demonstrates adherence to UNCLOS while safeguarding national interests.

Conclusion

India’s revised ECS claim reflects a balanced approach—leveraging scientific data for legal gains while managing disputes diplomatically. Success in securing undisputed areas will enhance India’s blue economy and reinforce its position as a responsible maritime power.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus & Previous Year Questions

 

Syllabus Linkages:

  • GS-II: International Relations (UNCLOS, maritime disputes, India-Pakistan relations).
  • GS-III: Security & Border Management (maritime security, EEZ, continental shelf).
  • GS-I: Geography (continental shelf geology, oceanic resources).

Previous Year Questions:

  • 2022: “Discuss the importance of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in resolving maritime disputes.”
  • 2019: “Examine India’s maritime security challenges in the Indian Ocean Region.”
  • 2017: “What are the rights and obligations of coastal states under UNCLOS?”

Key Takeaways for UPSC Aspirants

  • UNCLOS is crucial for maritime claims; India’s approach balances legal compliance and strategic interests.
  • Sir Creek remains a contentious India-Pakistan issue, affecting maritime boundaries.
  • Extended Continental Shelf claims are vital for resource security and geopolitical influence.

Introduction:

The U.S.-Iran nuclear standoff remains a critical issue in global geopolitics, with recent diplomatic talks in Muscat and Rome offering a glimmer of hope. However, tensions persist due to the Trump administration’s withdrawal from the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) and Iran’s subsequent nuclear advancements.

Complexities in U.S.-Iran Diplomacy:

  1. Historical Distrust: The U.S. unilaterally abandoned the JCPOA in 2018, leading to Iran’s accelerated nuclear activities.
  2. Regional Power Play: Israel’s pressure for military strikes and Iran’s support for proxies like the Houthis complicate diplomacy.
  3. Military Posturing: The U.S. has deployed B-2 bombers and increased military presence in West Asia, signalling coercive diplomacy.

Implications for Security:

  • Regional Instability: An attack on Iran could trigger a wider conflict involving Hezbollah, Hamas, and Gulf states.
  • Global Economy: A war would disrupt oil supplies, impacting energy security, particularly for India.
  • Non-Proliferation Risks: Iran’s potential weaponization could trigger a nuclear arms race in West Asia.

Strengthening Diplomacy:

  • Reviving JCPOA Framework: The 2015 agreement serves as a viable model for limiting uranium enrichment.
  • Multilateral Engagement: Involvement of EU, Russia, and China can ensure balanced negotiations.
  • Confidence-Building Measures: Sanctions relief in exchange for verifiable nuclear rollbacks could build trust.

Conclusion:

A diplomatic resolution is imperative to avoid catastrophic conflict. The U.S. must act as a responsible stakeholder, while Iran should reciprocate with transparency. India, with its strategic interests in West Asia, should advocate for peaceful dialogue under UN frameworks.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS Paper II (International Relations):
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
    • Important international institutions, agencies, and fora – their structure, mandate.
    • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
  • Previous Year Questions (PYQs) on Similar Themes:
    • “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain. (2021)
    • “India’s energy security is critically dependent on the geopolitics of West Asia.” Discuss. (2020)
    • “The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was a diplomatic victory but a strategic failure.” Critically examine. (2019)

Introduction:

The WHO Pandemic Accord (2025) is a landmark agreement aimed at strengthening global pandemic preparedness and response, following the inequities exposed during COVID-19. It seeks to ensure equitable access to medical countermeasures, enhance data-sharing mechanisms, and promote technology transfer while balancing intellectual property rights.

Key Provisions:

  1. Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing System (PABS):
    • Facilitates real-time sharing of pathogen data for faster vaccine/diagnostic development.
    • Ensures equitable distribution of pandemic-related products, addressing vaccine hoarding seen during COVID-19.
  2. Equity Measures:
    • Mandates support for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) in strengthening health infrastructure.
    • Encourages voluntary licensing and “mutually agreed” technology transfer to boost local manufacturing.
  3. Global Cooperation Framework:
    • Establishes standardized protocols for pandemic response, reducing fragmented national actions.
    • Promotes transparency in reporting outbreaks, avoiding delays like those seen in early COVID-19 reporting.

Challenges in Negotiations:

  • Intellectual Property (IP) Rights vs. Equity:
    • Developed nations (e.g., EU, US) resisted mandatory tech transfer, fearing it would disincentivize innovation.
    • LMICs demanded waivers on IP rights (like the TRIPS waiver debate during COVID-19).
  • Enforceability Concerns:
    • The “mutually agreed” clause on tech transfer lacks legal bindingness, risking weak compliance.
    • Funding mechanisms for LMICs remain unclear, raising doubts about implementation.

Implications for Global Health Equity:

  • Positive:
    • Sets a precedent for multilateral cooperation in health emergencies.
    • Addresses vaccine nationalism by ensuring fairer distribution mechanisms.
  • Challenges:
    • Pharmaceutical industry resistance may limit actual tech-sharing.
    • Geopolitical tensions (e.g., US-China rivalry) could hinder data transparency.

 

 

Conclusion:

The WHO Pandemic Accord is a step forward in global health governance, but its success depends on political will, financing, and enforceable mechanisms. Without stronger commitments, the equity gaps seen during COVID-19 may persist in future pandemics.

Link to Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II (International Relations):
    • Important International institutions, agencies, and fora – their structure, mandate.
    • Global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
  • GS Paper II (Health):
    • Issues relating to development and management of health.
    • International health regulations and pandemic preparedness.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2023: *”COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment.”* (GS I)
  • 2022: *”Discuss the role of the WHO in providing global health security during the COVID-19 pandemic.”* (GS II)
  • 2021: “Critically examine the implications of vaccine nationalism on global health equity.” (GS II)

Introduction:

India-Canada relations, historically defined by shared democratic values, multiculturalism, and strong diaspora ties, have recently deteriorated due to allegations of Indian involvement in the killing of Khalistani separatist Hardeep Singh Nijjar in 2023. The upcoming G-7 outreach summit in Kananaskis, Alberta (June 15–17, 2025), where Prime Minister Narendra Modi will meet Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney, offers a critical diplomatic window to reset ties strained over political, legal, and diaspora-related issues.

Body:

  1. Causes of the Recent Diplomatic Rift:
  • Khalistan Issue & Nijjar Killing (2023): Canada’s public accusation, though unsubstantiated, alleging Indian government involvement in Nijjar’s assassination strained relations. Even senior Indian ministers were named in RCMP investigations.
  • Mutual Diplomatic Retaliation: Both nations expelled diplomats, slashed mission staff by one-third, and suspended services — India stopped issuing visas to Canadian nationals temporarily.
  • Breakdown in Trade Dialogue: Canada paused the Early Progress Trade Agreement (EPTA) talks, affecting trade worth CAD $20 billion (approx. ₹1.2 lakh crore) annually.
  1. Structural Strengths in the Bilateral Relationship:
  • Diaspora Linkages: Over 1.86 million people of Indian origin live in Canada, contributing to the economy, academia, and politics — forming a vital bridge in bilateral engagement.
  • Economic Ties: India is Canada’s 10th largest trading partner, with increasing cooperation in clean tech, AI, critical minerals, and education.
  • Strategic Forums: Both countries are members of platforms like G20, Commonwealth, and UN, enabling multilateral cooperation.
  1. Opportunities in the Kananaskis Meeting:
  • Restoring Diplomatic Presence: Returning High Commissioners and diplomats can mark a symbolic thaw.
  • Law Enforcement Dialogue: As agreed by Mr. Modi, a structured mechanism for handling security issues including the Nijjar case and protection of Indian diplomats and interests in Canada.
  • Resume Trade Talks: Crafting a roadmap to restart negotiations on EPTA or Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
  • People-to-People Diplomacy: Promoting cultural exchange, academic collaborations, and diaspora outreach.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutionalized Crisis Management: Establish a bilateral diplomatic channel for sensitive issues like extremism, without public grandstanding.
  2. Diaspora Engagement Policy: India must actively engage with its diaspora to prevent radical fringe elements from influencing bilateral discourse.
  3. De-hyphenation Strategy: Isolate specific issues like the Khalistan movement from broader economic and strategic cooperation.
  4. Multilateral Leverage: Use forums like G-7, Commonwealth, and UN to shape a neutral narrative and reduce bilateral friction.

Conclusion:

The India-Canada relationship, despite recurring turbulence, has the resilience to recover due to its deep-rooted socio-economic and democratic foundations. The Kananaskis summit should serve as a platform not for conflict resolution, but for reinitiating mutual respect and structured dialogue. True rapprochement will depend on quiet, sustained diplomatic engagement, not just symbolic summits.

Syllabus Linkage – UPSC GS Paper II:

  • Bilateral relations and issues
  • Effect of developed countries’ policies on India
  • Role of diaspora in India’s foreign relations

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS II (2018): “How is India responding to protectionist trade policies adopted by developed countries?”
  • GS II (2019): “The long-standing controversy over the citizenship of migrants in Assam has once again led to political tension. Discuss the challenges in balancing internal security and human rights.”
  • GS II (2020): “What is the significance of Indo-U.S. relations for India’s strategic interests?”

Introduction:

India and the United States, the world’s largest democracies and strategic partners, are currently negotiating a limited Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA), expected to be finalized by fall 2025. This move comes amidst rising global protectionism and seeks to deepen economic ties. Despite shared interests, certain issues such as U.S. tariffs on Indian steel and aluminium remain contentious. A successful deal would mark a milestone in Indo-U.S. economic relations, reinforcing supply chains, job creation, and strategic convergence.

Body:

  1. Strategic Significance of the Deal:
  • Economic Interdependence: The U.S. is India’s largest trading partner in goods. In FY 2023–24, bilateral trade was $118.3 billion, with India enjoying a surplus of $30+ billion (Ministry of Commerce).
  • Supply Chain Diversification: In the post-COVID and post-Ukraine context, both countries are exploring “China+1” strategies. The deal would support resilient and trusted supply chains.
  • Geostrategic Context: The BTA complements the India–U.S. Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET), aiming to link trade with technology, defense, and climate cooperation.
  • Digital Trade & Services: India’s robust digital economy and skilled services sector stand to gain if non-tariff barriers are reduced.
  1. Key Issues in Negotiation:
  • Tariffs on Steel & Aluminium: The U.S. has imposed 50% tariffs on steel and aluminium imports (June 2025), which disproportionately affect Indian exports. India seeks exemption or rollback.
  • Regulatory Barriers: U.S. concerns on price controls on medical devices, data localization, and market access for dairy products.
  • Agricultural Exports: India’s interests in basmati rice, mangoes, shrimps, and spices face phytosanitary restrictions.
  • IPR & E-Commerce Rules: U.S. pressure on stronger IPR enforcement could conflict with India’s developmental needs and digital sovereignty.
  1. Progress Made So Far:
  • Recent rounds of talks (June 2025) have been productive, with both countries agreeing on a multi-sectoral framework.
  • Form 6B (Indian response team) led by Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal visited the U.S., followed by reciprocal negotiations in India.
  • Both sides have agreed on “mini-deals” that could be building blocks for a comprehensive trade pact.

Way Forward:

  1. Phased Negotiation Approach:
    • Focus on low-hanging fruits such as digital trade and professional mobility, before contentious sectors like agriculture and IPR.
  2. Tariff Realignment:
    • Pursue reciprocal tariff reduction through sectoral trade-offs, e.g., steel for medical devices.
  3. Build Domestic Consensus:
    • Involve stakeholders—industry, MSMEs, farmers—to ensure inclusive trade benefits.
  4. Strategic Trade Dialogue:
    • Institutionalize an India–U.S. Trade & Technology Council to resolve disputes and harmonize standards.
  5. Link Trade to Strategic Goals:
    • Align the BTA with Make in India, PLI schemes, and climate finance frameworks.

Conclusion:

The proposed India–U.S. trade agreement is more than an economic pact—it is a strategic imperative in an evolving multipolar world. While challenges persist, mutual interests in supply chain resilience, innovation, and democratic values provide strong incentives for resolution. A balanced and forward-looking deal would not only strengthen bilateral ties but also set a template for India’s future trade diplomacy in a fragmented global order.

Syllabus Linkage – UPSC Mains GS Paper II:

  • Bilateral relations and global groupings involving India
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • India and its neighbourhood – economic and strategic relations

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • GS II (2018): How is India responding to protectionist trade policies adopted by developed countries?
  • GS II (2015): Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically examine.
  • GS III (2020): Explain the meaning of investment in the context of Indian economy and discuss the present status of investment in India.

Introduction

In an era marked by rising protectionism, especially under the “America First” trade doctrine of former U.S. President Donald Trump, global trade dynamics have witnessed significant recalibrations. Asian economies, many of which enjoy trade surpluses with the U.S., are turning towards increased imports of American energy—particularly crude oil, liquefied natural gas (LNG), and ethane—as a strategic lever to mitigate tariff burdens and maintain trade stability.

Body

  1. Context of Trade Protectionism and Energy Diplomacy
  • President Trump’s tariff regimes, especially on steel, aluminum, and other sectors, targeted countries with high trade surpluses vis-à-vis the U.S.
  • To counterbalance the surplus and appease U.S. negotiators, Asian countries are proposing higher imports of American energy.
  • This represents a shift towards energy diplomacy as a trade correction mechanism.
  1. Country-Wise Strategic Responses
  • Indonesia: Plans to increase crude oil and LPG imports by $10 billion, directly linking this to tariff negotiations.
  • Pakistan: Considering importing $1 billion worth of U.S. crude oil—its first such move—to offset trade imbalance.
  • India: Contemplating scrapping import duties on U.S. LNG, ethane, and LPG; GAIL’s interest in acquiring stakes in U.S. LNG projects deepens energy ties.
  • Thailand: Long-term contracts for LNG and ethane imports from the U.S. as part of a strategic energy plan.
  • Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea: Encouraged to join the Alaska LNG Project—a U.S.-backed $44 billion pipeline initiative aimed at energy exports.
  1. Implications for Regional Diplomacy and Energy Security
  • Energy Security: Diversification of sources enhances reliability and reduces overdependence on the Middle East and Russia.
  • Strategic Balancing: Aligns energy trade with broader geopolitical objectives, including defense partnerships with the U.S.
  • Economic Resilience: Potential insulation from tariff impacts by rebalancing trade ledgers through energy imports.
  • Infrastructure Investment: Deepening financial and technological ties through investment in U.S. energy infrastructure.

Way Forward

  1. India’s Diplomatic Calibration:
    • India must balance U.S. energy imports with commitments to cleaner energy and climate goals.
    • Strategic long-term LNG contracts can secure price stability while enhancing bilateral ties.
  2. Regional Energy Grid Vision:
    • Asian countries should also explore intra-regional energy cooperation to avoid overdependence on any one source.
  3. Leverage Multilateral Platforms:
    • Forums like IEA, G20 Energy Track, and the Quad can be used to negotiate fairer terms and collective bargaining in energy trade.
  4. Policy Synchronization:
    • Domestic industrial and energy policies must be aligned with international trade commitments to ensure win-win outcomes.

Conclusion

Energy imports from the U.S. have become a diplomatic tool for many Asian countries to reduce trade imbalances and ease tariff tensions under American protectionist policies. While these steps help manage short-term trade pressures, they must be carefully balanced with long-term energy security, sustainability goals, and strategic autonomy. As global energy and trade landscapes evolve, a prudent mix of diversification, diplomacy, and developmental interests will define the success of such realignments.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II:
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • GS Paper III:
    • Infrastructure: Energy
    • Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth

Previous Years’ Questions for Reference:

  • UPSC GS2 (2019): “What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism?” (broad issue of global influence and national policies)
  • UPSC GS2 (2018): “How is India responding to the trade protectionism measures adopted by the developed countries?”
  • UPSC GS3 (2020): “Explain the meaning of investment in the context of Indian economy and discuss the present status of investment in India.”

Introduction:

As India and China mark 75 years of diplomatic ties, their relationship has evolved from one of Pan-Asian idealism to a complex rivalry marked by contested borders, economic interdependence, and shifting global alignments. The bilateral ties are no longer shaped by nostalgia but are embedded in structural competition, strategic calculus, and regional aspirations.

Body:

  1. Strategic Rivalry at the Core:
  • Border Tensions:
    The Galwan Valley clash of 2020 and continuing militarisation along the LAC, including permanent deployment of 60,000 Indian troops in Eastern Ladakh, underscores unresolved territorial disputes and deep mistrust.
  • China as a Structural Challenge:
    India’s foreign and security policy decisions are increasingly filtered through the “China lens”—be it in border infrastructure, QUAD alignment, or trade diversification.
  1. Economic Paradox – Competition Amidst Entanglement:
  • Despite geopolitical friction, bilateral trade crossed $100 billion in 2024–25, with India heavily dependent on Chinese inputs for electronics and pharmaceuticals.
  • While India has banned apps and scrutinised investments, full economic decoupling remains neither feasible nor desirable in the short term.

III. Competitive Coexistence as Strategic Doctrine:

  • India’s dual-track diplomacy:
    • Competing with China in regional influence via development aid and security outreach in South Asia.
    • Simultaneous engagement on multilateral platforms like BRICS, SCO, and RCEP observer frameworks.
  • Participation in QUAD reflects India’s strategic hedging in the Indo-Pacific while maintaining sovereignty over decision-making.
  1. China’s Regional Maneuvering and India’s Counter-Strategies:
  • China’s economic footprints (e.g., Hambantota Port, Pokhara Airport) have challenged India’s traditional influence.
  • India’s counter involves “Neighbourhood First” policy with timely disaster aid, infrastructure projects, and diplomatic outreach.
  1. The US-China Rivalry and India’s Strategic Autonomy:
  • The return of Trump’s unilateralism may pressure India to deepen ties with the US, especially in defence and Indo-Pacific frameworks.
  • However, India aims to retain strategic autonomy, navigating between cooperation with Washington and deterring antagonism from Beijing.
  1. Signs of Diplomatic Thaw:
  • India-China verification patrols resumed in 2025; discussions on Kailash Mansarovar Yatra and river data sharing hint at symbolic progress.
  • Modi’s podcast diplomacy invoked cultural synergy, received positively by China — a case of strategic storytelling, not sentimentality.

VII. Emerging Challenges – Water as a Strategic Lever:

  • China’s dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo near Arunachal Pradesh signals a new frontier of contestation — ecological and hydrological insecurity without a water-sharing treaty.

Way Forward:

  1. Four-Pillar Framework for a China Strategy:
  • Military readiness: Enhance border infrastructure and surveillance while avoiding escalation.
  • Economic diversification: Reduce dependency on Chinese imports through schemes like PLI and “Atmanirbhar Bharat.”
  • Diplomatic engagement: Continue structured dialogues (WMCC, ELM) even amidst confrontation.
  • Narrative control: Shape regional and global perception by demonstrating India as a proactive, responsible power.
  1. Regional Vision and Infrastructure Diplomacy:
  • Move from reactive to proactive engagement in South Asia.
  • Close strategic gaps through connectivity corridors, cultural diplomacy, and human-centric development.
  1. Institutional Guardrails:
  • Establish confidence-building mechanisms for border de-escalation.
  • Propose regional forums for ecological and water security cooperation.
  1. Soft Power and Strategic Communication:
  • Reclaim India’s narrative of peace and cooperation rooted in its civilizational ethos.
  • Counter Chinese narratives through public diplomacy and media outreach.

Conclusion:

India-China relations have transitioned from idealistic camaraderie to calibrated competition. The goal is not to dissolve rivalry but to manage it without miscalculation. As global power equations shift, India must treat this moment not as a constraint, but as a chance to redefine its regional leadership and global role. In the China mirror, India must not merely see a challenge, but a catalyst — to refine its strategy, invest in resilience, and lead with clarity.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II: India and its neighbourhood—relations.
  • GS Paper II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India.
  • GS Paper II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.

Link to Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2020: “The long-standing border issue between India and China has clouded their bilateral relations.” Discuss.
  • 2018: “What are the main objectives of India’s foreign policy? What role does India see for itself in the contemporary multipolar world?”
  • 2017: “Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member states by Pakistan are not conducive to the future of SAARC.” Explain.

Introduction:

The bilateral trade agreement (BTA) negotiations between India and the U.S. have garnered significant attention due to the introduction of reciprocal tariffs and the potential for a new phase of trade relations between the two countries. Initiated by U.S. President Donald Trump’s tariff announcement in April 2025, the two sides are now working towards resolving key issues, including non-tariff barriers, agricultural tariffs, and industrial trade. The upcoming negotiations in Washington DC aim to discuss a framework for these issues, and the clock is ticking as the deadline for the first tranche of the agreement approaches.

Body:

  1. U.S. Ambitions and India’s Response:
    The U.S. has articulated clear demands, including tariff reductions on automobiles, motorbikes, alcohol (including bourbon whisky), and agricultural products. While India has agreed to negotiate, it faces challenges in addressing some of these demands, particularly in the highly sensitive agricultural sector. Products like fruits and nuts may be negotiable, but offering substantial reductions in agricultural tariffs could destabilize India’s domestic market, especially with respect to its small-scale farmers. On the other hand, India could offer tariff cuts on industrial items such as automobiles or motorcycles, which may be more feasible for India to accommodate.
  2. The 90-Day Pause and Strategic Interests:
    The U.S. has provided a 90-day window during which reciprocal tariffs are suspended. However, this period is seen as critical for both sides to move beyond agreed terms of reference (ToRs) and begin addressing contentious issues. The deadline for the first tranche of the agreement (autumn 2025) may not provide enough time to fully resolve all issues. The importance of delivering meaningful outcomes before the fall deadline is critical to avoid the re-imposition of tariffs, which could strain trade relations further.
  3. Potential Areas of Conflict:
  • Agricultural Sector: The U.S. has long lobbied for India to lower tariffs on agricultural imports, but India’s agricultural sector is highly protected due to its sensitivity. The risk of domestic disruption due to import surges remains a major concern for India.
  • Non-Tariff Barriers: These include regulatory hurdles, certifications, and technical standards that often act as hidden tariffs, especially in sectors like pharmaceuticals, information technology, and food products. Resolving these will require balancing India’s regulatory autonomy with U.S. demands for greater market access.
  1. Potential Areas of Cooperation:
  • Automobiles and Motorcycles: India could offer tariff cuts on U.S. vehicles and parts, which could benefit U.S. manufacturers and reduce trade imbalances in the sector.
  • Technology and Pharmaceuticals: Both countries could expand cooperation in technology services and pharmaceuticals, which are pivotal sectors for both economies. The U.S. would likely seek further market access for tech products and intellectual property enforcement, while India’s pharmaceutical sector is a significant exporter to the U.S., presenting mutual benefits in cooperation.
  • Trade Deficit Reduction: The U.S. seeks to address its trade deficit with India. Bilateral negotiations can help India balance its exports to the U.S. by enhancing exports of industrial goods, services, and IT products.

Way Forward:

India’s strategy in these negotiations should focus on striking a balance between addressing U.S. demands and protecting its domestic interests, especially in sensitive sectors like agriculture. To avoid the re-imposition of tariffs and secure a beneficial trade agreement, India should consider:

  • Offering gradual tariff cuts on industrial goods while keeping agricultural tariffs largely intact.
  • Addressing non-tariff barriers by harmonizing regulations with international standards without undermining domestic industries.
  • Exploring opportunities for expanding cooperation in sectors like technology, pharmaceuticals, and services, where both countries stand to gain.

Additionally, India must strengthen domestic policy frameworks to ensure that the benefits of any agreement are equitably distributed, especially to vulnerable sectors like agriculture and small-scale manufacturing.

Conclusion:

The ongoing trade negotiations between India and the U.S. present both challenges and opportunities. While the reciprocal tariffs issue and the highly sensitive agricultural sector remain significant hurdles, the negotiations also offer a platform for deepening bilateral ties, especially in industrial goods, technology, and pharmaceuticals. By approaching the talks with a pragmatic and flexible strategy, India can navigate these challenges, protect its domestic interests, and work towards a mutually beneficial agreement with the U.S. that can help foster long-term trade and economic cooperation.

Link to Previous Years’ Questions:

  • GS Paper II (International Relations):
    Discuss the implications of the U.S. trade policies on India, especially focusing on tariffs and trade agreements. Evaluate the potential for deeper India-U.S. economic ties in the context of these trade talks.
    (2018 – Question on U.S.-India trade relations)
  • GS Paper III (Economic Development):
    Examine the role of non-tariff barriers in international trade and their impact on developing economies like India. What strategies can India adopt to mitigate the effects of such barriers?
    (2019 – Question on trade barriers and their economic consequences)

Q. “Trumponomics reflects a shift from globalized efficiency to economic nationalism, reshaping global trade dynamics.” Critically examine the core principles of Trumponomics, its global implications, and lessons for India. 

Introduction

The emergence of Trumponomics—the economic vision championed by former U.S. President Donald Trump—signaled a decisive turn from decades of free trade orthodoxy to economic nationalism. Marked by aggressive tariff policies, a focus on reshoring manufacturing, and confronting trade deficits, this approach sparked a global trade war reminiscent of post-WWII protectionism. Understanding its ideological underpinnings and broader implications offers valuable insights, especially for countries like India striving for strategic autonomy in an increasingly fragmented global order.

Body

Core Principles of Trumponomics

  1. Revival of U.S. Manufacturing
    • From 2000–2011, the U.S. lost between 2 to 5 million manufacturing jobs due to globalization and offshoring.
    • This decline triggered socio-economic issues—rising crime, unemployment, and opioid crises.
    • Trumponomics linked national security to industrial strength, famously declaring, “If you don’t have steel, you don’t have a country.”
  2. Fair Trade Over Free Trade
    • Trumponomics challenged multilateral trade frameworks (like WTO) and targeted countries, especially China, for unfair trade practices—subsidies, IP theft, and forced technology transfers.
    • Tariffs were used not only as economic tools but as strategic instruments to reshape trade norms.
  3. Addressing Chronic Trade Deficits
    • The U.S. has run annual trade deficits ranging between $500 billion to $1 trillion.
    • The “reserve currency dilemma” causes dollar overvaluation, encouraging imports and harming exports.
    • Tariffs were meant to reduce dependence on foreign production and rebalance trade.

Tariffs: Mechanisms and Effects

  • First-round effects: Tariffs increased input costs, with inflation estimated to rise by 0.3–0.6%.
  • Currency offset: Decreased demand for foreign goods weakened exporter currencies, reducing the effective burden on U.S. consumers.
  • Second-round benefits:
    • Encouraged reshoring of industries.
    • Prompted innovation and productivity gains among U.S. firms.

The Broader Framework of Trumponomics

  • Tax Cuts: Eased cost pressures on firms.
  • Deregulation: Reduced compliance burdens.
  • Energy Independence: Boosted domestic energy production to counter inflation.

Criticisms and Global Implications

  • Short-Term Disruptions: Retaliatory tariffs disrupted global supply chains and hurt allies and adversaries alike.
  • Long-Term Risks: Eroded faith in multilateralism and institutions like the WTO.
  • Philosophical Shift: Prioritized strategic autonomy over economic efficiency—an idea that resonates with India’s mixed economic model.

Way Forward

  • India’s Learning Curve:
    • India’s Atmanirbhar Bharat echoes Trumponomics in spirit, aiming for industrial revival, strategic sectors’ protection, and reduced import dependency.
    • However, unlike the U.S., India must balance protectionism with integration into global value chains to sustain growth.
  • Policy Priorities for India:
    • Invest in supply chain resilience and domestic capabilities.
    • Leverage multilateral platforms while also entering bilateral trade negotiations to safeguard national interests.
    • Ensure regulatory stability and policy consistency to attract reshoring investments.

Conclusion

Trumponomics represents a disruption of the post-Cold War economic order, promoting sovereignty and industrial revival over global integration. While critics label it as unsustainable, its influence has reshaped policy thinking worldwide. For India, it reinforces the imperative to pursue strategic self-reliance, enhance domestic manufacturing, and navigate a volatile trade environment with pragmatism and foresight.

Link to Previous Year Questions

  • GS Paper II, UPSC Mains 2018: “How is India responding to the global trend of protectionism?”
  • GS Paper III, UPSC Mains 2019: “What are the challenges to India’s economic growth in the current global trade environment?”
  • GS Paper II, UPSC Mains 2020: “‘The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.’ Explain.”
  • GS Paper III, UPSC Mains 2021: “Explain the rationale behind the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative and how it compares with global protectionist trends.”

Introduction:

In a significant policy shift, U.S. President Donald Trump recently announced a new framework for reciprocal tariffs based on trade balances with partner countries. Under this, countries like India may face an additional 26% uniform tariff on goods exported to the U.S., compounding existing commodity-wise tariffs. While temporarily capped and exempting certain sectors, this recalibration signals a more aggressive trade stance that could reshape bilateral and global trade dynamics.

Body:

  1. Understanding the U.S. Reciprocal Tariff Move:
  • The reciprocal tariff model uses a formula that penalizes countries with higher exports to the U.S. than imports from it.
  • For India, based on 2024 trade data (Exports: $41.8B; Imports: $87.4B), the discounted reciprocal tariff works out to 26%.
  • This is in addition to existing commodity-wise tariffs and applies uniformly across most product categories.
  1. Sectoral Impact on India:
  • While pharmaceuticals and energy are currently exempted, other critical sectors like electrical machinery, textiles, gems & jewellery, and mechanical appliances could face price competitiveness issues.
  • However, India’s overall export exposure to the U.S. remains moderate, reducing systemic risk.
  • India’s major competitors like China, Vietnam, and South Korea are also facing similar or higher reciprocal tariffs, slightly leveling the playing field.
  1. India’s Policy Dilemma:
  • A confrontational approach (e.g., counter-tariffs) may provoke an aggressive U.S. response, as seen in the case of China where tariffs escalated up to 245%.
  • India’s imports from the U.S. are largely essential, meaning counter-tariffs could harm domestic industries or consumers.

Way Forward:

  1. Rebalancing Trade Through Strategic Imports:
  • By increasing imports from the U.S. (e.g., substituting oil imports from other countries with U.S. petroleum), India can reduce the calculated reciprocal tariff.
  • For instance, a $25 billion increase in U.S. imports could lower the tariff from 26% to 11.8%, improving Indian export competitiveness.
  1. Strategic Diplomatic Engagement:
  • Initiate comprehensive trade consultations with U.S. trade authorities to negotiate exemptions or sector-specific deals.
  • Learn from South Korea’s engagement strategies that led to managed tariff levels.
  1. Multilateral Trade Advocacy:
  • Strengthen the role of the WTO in restoring rule-based trade norms, promoting global tariff reduction, and resisting protectionism.
  • Use regional trade groupings like RCEP or IPEF as fallback mechanisms to maintain market access.
  1. Domestic Reforms and Monitoring:
  • Boost the competitiveness of export-oriented sectors through productivity and quality improvements.
  • Keep watch on potential dumping threats from China or other economies rerouting exports to India due to U.S. tariffs.

Conclusion:

India must avoid a tit-for-tat response and instead adopt a measured, strategic, and multilateral approach. While the U.S. reciprocal tariff move marks a shift towards economic nationalism, it is also an opportunity for India to rebalance its trade portfolio, deepen bilateral trade engagement with the U.S., and contribute constructively to global trade reform through the WTO. Diplomacy, diversification, and domestic reforms should together define India’s path in this evolving landscape.

Link to Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • UPSC GS2 2021 (International Relations): “’The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of a China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.’ Explain.”
    Reflects on geopolitical-economic tensions and trade strategies between major powers.
  • UPSC GS3 2018 (Indian Economy): “How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?”
    Directly linked to rising tariff barriers and their implications.
  • UPSC GS3 2020: “What are the challenges and opportunities for India in the wake of the recent trade war between US and China?”
    Establishes relevance of India’s positioning in global trade realignment.

Introduction

India’s Northeastern region, once perceived as a peripheral and isolated zone due to its rugged terrain and historical neglect, is now being reimagined as a strategic gateway to Southeast Asia. External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar recently emphasized this transformation, linking it to key policies such as the Act East Policy, BIMSTEC cooperation, and transnational connectivity projects like the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP) and India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.

Body

  1. Strategic Importance of the Northeast:
  • Geographical Position: Shares international borders with five countries — Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, and China — making it a vital interface for cross-border diplomacy and trade.
  • Act East Policy: Positions the Northeast as the launchpad for engaging ASEAN countries in trade, connectivity, and cultural exchange.
  • BIMSTEC and BBIN: Regional groupings that hinge on seamless connectivity and economic integration — where the Northeast is central.
  1. Key Connectivity Projects:
  • Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP): Connects Kolkata port to Sittwe (Myanmar) and then to Mizoram via inland waterways and road.
  • India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway: Will link Moreh in Manipur to Mae Sot in Thailand via Myanmar, enabling direct land access to Southeast Asia.
  • Border Haats and Integrated Check Posts (ICPs): Promote trade and people-to-people ties.
  1. Tourism and Economic Potential:
  • Highlighted during G20 preparatory meets, the region’s scenic and cultural wealth positions it as a global tourism hub.
  • Purvodaya scheme aims to accelerate industrial and infrastructure development in Eastern and Northeastern India.
  • As India seeks to become a contributor to the global workplace, the youth of the region, known for their skills in hospitality, IT, and healthcare, can be mobilized for international service sectors.
  1. Geopolitical Sensitivities:
  • Bangladesh’s recent remarks labelling the region as “landlocked” and its potential proximity to the Chinese market highlight the need for proactive Indian diplomacy.
  • Connectivity must go hand-in-hand with security, as the region has seen insurgency and cross-border tensions in the past.

Way Forward

  • Diplomatic Balancing: India must continue engaging with Bangladesh and Myanmar to ensure regional projects are not stalled by political undercurrents.
  • Infrastructure Investment: Ensure timely completion of connectivity projects with proper environmental and social safeguards.
  • Skill Development & Entrepreneurship: Empower local youth for service industries aligned with Southeast Asian demand.
  • Sustainable Tourism: Develop the region’s ecotourism potential without harming biodiversity or local cultures.

Conclusion

Transforming the Northeastern region from a “landlocked” periphery to a vibrant “gateway to Southeast Asia” reflects India’s broader strategic and economic recalibration. By aligning regional development with foreign policy goals, India can not only uplift the Northeast but also embed it into the heart of its Indo-Pacific vision.

Link to Previous Year Questions:

  • UPSC GS Paper II, 2020: “‘India’s Act East Policy is playing a critical role in the integration of the country’s economy with that of South East Asian countries.’ Discuss with special reference to the North-East Region of India.”
  • UPSC GS Paper II, 2016: “Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member states by Pakistan are not conducive to the future of SAARC. Explain with suitable examples.” (Relevant for regional diplomacy context)

Introduction:

Iran’s uranium enrichment programme has once again taken global centre stage amid renewed diplomatic engagements with the U.S. Iran’s stockpiling of high-enriched uranium (HEU) and advanced centrifuge capacity has drastically reduced its nuclear “breakout time” — raising concerns across the international community, particularly in West Asia.

Iran’s Nuclear Programme: Background and Escalation

  • Iran is a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), but after the 1979 revolution, it ceased cooperation with the IAEA, raising suspicions of a clandestine weapons programme.
  • The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) aimed to limit Iran’s nuclear capabilities in return for sanction relief. Key provisions included:
    • Enrichment cap at 3.67%,
    • Stockpile capped at 300 kg,
    • Removal of advanced centrifuges.
  • However, the U.S. unilateral withdrawal in 2018 under President Trump led Iran to resume high-level enrichment, reaching 60% HEU, dangerously close to 90% weapons-grade uranium.

Strategic Implications for West Asia and Beyond

  1. Regional Destabilization:
    • Israel views a nuclear Iran as an existential threat and has threatened preemptive strikes.
    • Iran’s nuclear progress emboldens its “axis of resistance” — Hezbollah, Houthis, and militias in Iraq and Syria — triggering proxy wars.
  2. Proliferation Domino Effect:
    • A nuclear-capable Iran may encourage other regional powers like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, or Turkey to pursue similar capabilities.
  3. Global Non-Proliferation Norms:
    • Iran’s advancements undermine IAEA credibility and the broader global non-proliferation regime, especially if diplomatic efforts fail.

Limitations and Potentials of Diplomacy

  1. Successes of JCPOA:
    • Between 2015 and 2018, Iran was in full compliance, with extensive IAEA inspections and rollback of capabilities.
  2. Failures of Coercive Unilateralism:
    • The U.S. exit from JCPOA without multilateral backing weakened diplomatic trust and empowered Iran’s hardliners.
  3. Present Scenario:
    • Iran’s internal pressures — economic collapse, regional setbacks, and isolation — have forced it back to the negotiating table.
    • But the shortened breakout time (~a few weeks) and existing stockpile (~70 kg of 60% HEU) make future diplomacy high-stakes.
  4. Limits of Deterrence:
    • Threats of bombing by the U.S. and Israel may push Iran to accelerate covert weaponization, reminiscent of North Korea’s trajectory.

Way Forward:

  • Revival of Multilateralism: U.S. must work with EU, Russia, China to rebuild the JCPOA or a new accord.
  • Credible Incentives: Sanctions relief, regional cooperation frameworks, and peaceful nuclear use assurances.
  • Strengthened IAEA Mandate: Allow intrusive inspections, safeguard stockpiles, and monitor centrifuge usage.

Conclusion:

Iran’s uranium enrichment is not merely a technical issue but a strategic flashpoint with deep geopolitical consequences. Diplomacy remains the most viable tool, but only if pursued sincerely, multilaterally, and with long-term strategic vision. A nuclear-armed Iran could irrevocably alter the security architecture of West Asia, making urgent and credible diplomatic engagement essential.

Linked PYQs (UPSC GS Mains – Paper II):

  1. 2022: “Discuss the main objectives of India’s nuclear policy. How far has India’s nuclear policy reflected its commitment to nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation?”
  2. 2020: “‘The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.’ Explain.”
  3. 2018: “A mere compliance with law is not enough, the values enshrined in the Constitution also need to be followed. Discuss in light of international relations.”
  4. 2015: “Terrorism is emerging as a competitive industry over the last few decades.” Analyse the steps taken by India to counter this threat and suggest further steps.

 Model Answer:

Trade wars, marked by retaliatory tariffs and protectionist policies, often disrupt global supply chains, escalate political tensions, and hinder economic growth. The recent remarks by Italian Deputy Prime Minister Antonio Tajani during his visit to India reinforce the idea that trade disputes harm both businesses and consumers. Within this context, initiatives like the India-European Union Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) and the India-Middle East-Europe Corridor (IMEC) represent efforts to foster economic integration and multilateral cooperation amid increasing geopolitical tensions.

India-EU BTIA: Prospects and Challenges

Prospects:

  1. Renewed Political Will: The full European Commission’s visit to India in February and the commitment to conclude BTIA by year-end demonstrate strengthened diplomatic resolve.
  2. Complementary Economies: India’s growing consumer base and the EU’s technological and capital strengths offer scope for synergy in areas like green tech, digital trade, and clean energy.
  3. Strategic Realignment: Both India and the EU seek to reduce economic overdependence on China, making BTIA a critical step toward diversification.

Challenges:

  1. Tariff and Market Access Issues: Long-standing disagreements over tariffs on wine, spirits, dairy, and agricultural products continue to delay progress.
  2. Regulatory Barriers: Divergences over data protection standards, intellectual property rights, and environmental norms complicate negotiations.
  3. Bilateral Comparisons: As India simultaneously negotiates trade terms with the U.S., the EU may expect parity, which could further complicate consensus-building.

India-Middle East-Europe Corridor (IMEC): Strategic Potential and Constraints

Strategic Potential:

  1. Geoeconomic Connectivity: IMEC aims to enhance intermodal connectivity across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, potentially reducing transit times and boosting trade.
  2. Diversification of Trade Routes: It offers an alternative to China’s Belt and Road Initiative, aligning with India’s Act West policy and the EU’s Global Gateway.
  3. Economic Catalysis: Ports like Trieste in Italy and Haifa in Israel can evolve into logistical hubs, boosting regional economies and infrastructure development.

Constraints:

  1. Geopolitical Instability: Ongoing conflicts in Israel and its neighbourhood (e.g., Gaza, Lebanon) hinder corridor implementation and investment security.
  2. Financial and Infrastructure Gaps: Large-scale investment in ports, rail, and digital infrastructure remains a bottleneck unless backed by coordinated EU-India financing.
  3. Lack of Institutional Mechanisms: The absence of a robust governance framework for IMEC may delay decision-making and conflict resolution among stakeholders.

Conclusion

While both BTIA and IMEC hold transformative potential for enhancing India-EU ties and regional integration, their success depends on sustained political will, mutual flexibility, and a commitment to multilateralism. In an increasingly fragmented world, such partnerships offer a pathway to economic resilience and strategic autonomy, but they must overcome entrenched trade barriers and geopolitical volatility to deliver tangible outcomes.

Structured Answer

  1. Changing Nature of Modern Warfare
  • Multi-domain warfare: Beyond land, sea, air—now includes cyberspace, space, undersea, and AI-driven combat (e.g., drone swarms in Ukraine-Russia war).
  • Non-kinetic threats: Cyberattacks, disinformation, economic coercion used to achieve strategic goals without direct conflict.
  • Technological disruptions: AI, quantum computing, and autonomous weapons are reshaping deterrence strategies.
  1. Geopolitical & Security Challenges for India
  • Persistent threats: Proxy wars, terrorism (esp. from Pakistan), and China’s aggressive posturing along northern borders.
  • Weaponisation of trade & tech: Global supply chain monopolies (e.g., semiconductors, drones) create strategic dependencies.
  • Decline of multilateralism: Rising nationalism and weakening of global institutions (UN, WTO) lead to unilateral actions.
  1. India’s Preparedness & Reforms Needed
  • Modernisation of armed forces:
    • Atmanirbhar Bharat in defence (indigenous drones, AI-based surveillance).
    • Integrated Theatre Commands for multi-domain operations.
  • Countering cyber & info warfare:
    • Strengthening Defence Cyber Agency and National Cyber Security Policy.
  • Leveraging emerging tech:
    • DRDO’s focus on AI, quantum tech, and hypersonic weapons.
    • Private sector collaboration (e.g., startups in drone tech).
  • Diplomatic & economic resilience:
    • Reducing dependence on foreign arms imports (PLI for defence manufacturing).
    • Securing critical supply chains (rare earth minerals, semiconductors).
  1. Conclusion

India must adopt a holistic approach—combining tech innovation, joint military reforms, and strategic autonomy—to counter 21st-century warfare challenges. The ‘Year of Reforms 2025’ is a step in the right direction, but sustained investment in R&D and international partnerships will be crucial.

Linkage with UPSC Syllabus & Previous Year Questions

Relevant Syllabus Topics:

  • GS III – Security: Challenges to internal security (cyber warfare, terrorism), role of emerging tech in defence.
  • GS II – International Relations: Changing global order, de-globalisation, weaponisation of trade & finance.
  • GS III – Science & Tech: AI, drones, quantum computing, and their military applications.

Previous Year Questions:

  • 2023: “What are the security challenges posed by the use of drones in modern warfare? Discuss India’s preparedness to counter such threats.”
  • 2022: “Examine the impact of emerging technologies like AI and blockchain on global power dynamics.”
  • 2021: “Discuss the role of cyber warfare in contemporary conflicts. How should India strengthen its cyber defence capabilities?”

 

Introduction

The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) recently held its sixth summit in Bangkok, marking a significant effort to rejuvenate the grouping after years of stagnation. Originally envisioned as a bridge between South Asia (SAARC) and Southeast Asia (ASEAN), BIMSTEC has struggled due to a lack of political will and clear objectives. However, with SAARC becoming dysfunctional due to India-Pakistan tensions and other sub-regional initiatives facing hurdles, BIMSTEC has gained renewed importance. The summit’s outcomes, including agreements on trade, connectivity, and disaster management, signal progress, but structural and geopolitical challenges remain.

Body

Key Outcomes of the Summit:

  1. Economic and Connectivity Initiatives:
    • Adoption of the ‘BIMSTEC Vision 2030’, outlining plans for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and Customs cooperation.
    • Progress on the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, enhancing connectivity between India’s Northeast and Southeast Asia.
    • Establishment of a BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce to boost trade and investment.
  2. Disaster Management & Regional Stability:
    • Given the region’s vulnerability to natural disasters, a joint disaster management mechanism was prioritized.
    • Discussions on counter-terrorism and maritime security to ensure stability in the Bay of Bengal region.
  3. Bilateral Engagements:
    • India-Bangladesh: PM Modi and Bangladesh’s Chief Adviser Yunus addressed issues like minority rights and border killings, signaling a thaw in relations.
    • India-Nepal: Modi’s meeting with Nepal’s KP Sharma Oli helped ease tensions after India’s earlier reluctance to engage.
    • Myanmar’s Inclusion: Despite the military junta’s controversial rule, Myanmar’s participation was a diplomatic gesture, with India urging a return to democracy.

Challenges Ahead:

  1. Implementation Deficit: Many initiatives (e.g., FTA, connectivity projects) mirror past SAARC failures; execution remains a concern.
  2. Geopolitical Tensions: Differences among members (e.g., Myanmar’s political crisis, India-Bangladesh disputes) could hinder cohesion.
  3. Institutional Weakness: BIMSTEC lacks a strong secretariat and dispute-resolution mechanisms, unlike ASEAN.
  4. Competing Regional Alignments: Some members (Thailand, Myanmar) prioritize ASEAN, while others (India, Bangladesh) focus on SAARC alternatives.

Way Forward

  • Strengthening Institutional Mechanisms: Establishing a permanent secretariat with adequate funding and decision-making powers.
  • Focusing on Quick Wins: Prioritizing low-hanging fruits like trade facilitation and energy cooperation to build trust.
  • Balancing Geopolitics: Ensuring Myanmar’s political crisis does not derail regional cooperation while advocating for democratic processes.
  • Leveraging India’s Leadership: India must take a proactive role in driving BIMSTEC’s agenda, ensuring it does not meet SAARC’s fate.

Conclusion

The BIMSTEC summit has provided a fresh impetus to regional cooperation, but its long-term success depends on overcoming structural weaknesses and geopolitical divergences. If member states demonstrate political will and focus on tangible outcomes, BIMSTEC can emerge as a viable alternative to SAARC, fostering economic integration and stability in the Bay of Bengal region.

Previous Year Link:

  • 2018 UPSC Mains (GS-II): “The BIMSTEC has emerged as a promising alternative to SAARC. Discuss its potential and challenges.” (Relevance: Similar theme on BIMSTEC’s role in regional cooperation.)

Introduction:

The global economic order is undergoing a significant transformation, marked by rising multipolarity, geopolitical uncertainties, and the weakening efficacy of multilateral institutions like the WTO. Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman recently emphasized that nations, including India, are increasingly turning to bilateral trade agreements as a pragmatic response to these challenges. The India-UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations exemplify this shift, where economic interests are converging with strategic priorities.

Body:

  1. Rise of Bilateralism in a Multipolar World:
  • Ineffectiveness of Multilateralism: Institutions like the WTO have struggled to address contemporary trade disputes, leading nations to seek faster, more flexible bilateral deals.
  • Economic and Strategic Convergence: As Sitharaman noted, economic interests are now intertwined with strategic goals, making bilateral pacts more attractive.
  • Example: The India-UK FTA negotiations, ongoing for years, reflect a mutual desire to deepen economic ties despite external pressures like U.S. tariffs.
  1. Implications for India’s Trade Policy:
  • Faster Decision-Making: Bilateral deals allow India to tailor terms to its advantage, unlike rigid multilateral frameworks.
  • Diversification of Trade Partners: Engaging with the UK, EU, and others reduces over-dependence on any single market.
  • GIFT City as a Financial Hub: India is leveraging bilateral engagements (e.g., with UK insurers like Prudential PLC) to promote GIFT City as a global financial services center.
  1. Challenges and Opportunities:
  • Coordination Issues: Parallel negotiations (e.g., India-UK investment treaty, mutual recognition of qualifications) require careful balancing.
  • Geopolitical Risks: Over-reliance on bilateralism may fragment global trade further, as seen in U.S. tariff policies under Trump.
  • Opportunities in Education & Research: Collaborations like UK universities (e.g., Queen’s University Belfast) setting up campuses in India align with the National Education Policy (2020).

Way Forward:

  • Revitalizing Multilateralism: While bilateral deals are pragmatic, India should advocate for WTO reforms to ensure long-term stability.
  • Strategic Bilateral Engagements: Prioritize FTAs with like-minded partners (e.g., UK, EU) while safeguarding domestic industries.
  • Boosting GIFT City: Incentivize global firms to establish operations in India’s financial hubs to reduce reliance on offshore centers.

Conclusion:

The trend towards bilateralism reflects a pragmatic adaptation to global uncertainties. For India, this approach offers flexibility but requires a balanced strategy that combines bilateral gains with efforts to strengthen multilateral frameworks. The India-UK FTA, once concluded, could serve as a model for future agreements, blending economic and strategic interests.

Previous Year Link:

  • 2023 UPSC Mains (GS Paper II): “The world is witnessing a decline of multilateralism and a rise in regional and bilateral trade agreements. Examine the implications for India.” (This question aligns with the current trend discussed in the article.)

Introduction:

The India-UAE relationship has evolved into a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, with defence cooperation emerging as a pivotal pillar. The recent meeting between Defence Minister Rajnath Singh and UAE’s Deputy PM & Defence Minister Sheikh Hamdan bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum underscored the mutual commitment to deepen defence ties, including co-production, innovation, and maritime security. This partnership aligns with India’s broader strategic interests in West Asia and reinforces regional stability.

Body:

  1. Strategic Importance of India-UAE Defence Ties:
  • The UAE is a key Gulf partner for India, with shared interests in counter-terrorism, maritime security, and energy security.
  • Defence cooperation strengthens India’s Look West Policy and enhances its role as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
  • The UAE’s participation in India’s Defence Expo and interest in co-development projects (e.g., BrahMos missiles) signifies deepening industrial collaboration.
  1. Key Areas of Collaboration:
  • Coast Guard Cooperation: An upcoming MoU will formalize joint maritime security efforts, crucial for combating piracy and smuggling.
  • Defence Industrial Partnership: Focus on co-production and technology transfer, leveraging India’s defence manufacturing under ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’.
  • Counter-Terrorism & Regional Stability: Both nations face threats from extremism; enhanced intelligence-sharing bolsters security.
  • Economic Synergy: Defence deals complement UAE’s investments in India (e.g., $75 billion commitment in infrastructure).
  1. Implications for Regional Peace:
  • A stronger India-UAE axis can counterbalance Chinese influence in the Gulf and promote a rules-based order.
  • Joint initiatives like the I2U2 (India-Israel-UAE-US) grouping amplify strategic convergence on connectivity and defence tech.

Way Forward:

  • Expedite MoUs on coast guard cooperation and defence industrial roadmaps.
  • Leverage UAE’s Tech Capabilities: Collaborate on AI, drones, and cyber defence under the India-UAE Tech Partnership.
  • Expand Trilateral Engagements: Include France or Japan in defence dialogues for broader Indo-Pacific synergy.

Conclusion:

The India-UAE defence partnership is a force multiplier for regional security and economic growth. By institutionalizing collaboration in defence industries and maritime security, the two nations can foster a stable and prosperous West Asia, aligning with India’s vision of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • 2022: “Discuss the role of India’s strategic partnerships with Gulf countries in ensuring energy security and counter-terrorism.” (GS Paper II)
  • 2020: “How does India’s engagement with the UAE reflect its evolving West Asia policy?” (GS Paper II)

 

 Introduction:

During Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Sri Lanka in 2025, seven Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) were signed, covering defence, energy, digitization, health, and economic assistance. Key highlights included reduced interest rates on loans, conversion of $100 million loans into grants, and Sri Lanka’s assurance that its territory would not be used against India’s security interests. These agreements signify deepening bilateral ties and India’s role as a reliable partner in Sri Lanka’s economic recovery.

Significance of the Agreements:

  1. Defence Cooperation:
    • The defence MoU acts as an “umbrella agreement,” formalizing security collaboration.
    • Sri Lanka’s commitment to preventing its territory from being used against India strengthens mutual trust, countering external influences (e.g., China’s strategic presence in the Indian Ocean).
    • Enhances maritime security, counterterrorism efforts, and joint exercises.
  2. Energy Security & Connectivity:
    • Agreements on energy grid connectivity and developing Trincomalee as an energy hub (with UAE partnership) boost regional energy integration.
    • Solar power projects align with sustainable development goals, reducing Sri Lanka’s dependence on fossil fuels.
  3. Economic & Developmental Support:
    • Reduction in loan interest rates and conversion of loans to grants ease Sri Lanka’s debt burden, reinforcing India’s “Neighbourhood First” policy.
    • Multi-sectoral aid to Eastern Province and cold storage/solar power projects enhance livelihoods and infrastructure.
  4. Cultural & Soft Power Diplomacy:
    • Buddha relics’ exposition during Vesak and temple renovations (Thirukoneswaram, Sita Eliya) strengthen cultural ties, leveraging shared Buddhist heritage.
    • The “Sri Lanka Mitra Vibhushana” award to PM Modi reflects gratitude for India’s consistent support.

Strengthening Bilateral & Regional Stability:

  • Counterbalancing China: By offering non-debt-creating assistance, India provides an alternative to Sri Lanka’s reliance on Chinese loans.
  • Regional Integration: Energy and digital cooperation align with India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) doctrine, promoting stability in South Asia.
  • Trust-Building: Sri Lanka’s assurance on security addresses India’s concerns, reducing mistrust that arose during the civil war and post-war reconciliation phases.

Way Forward:

  1. Implementing Projects Efficiently: Timely execution of energy, infrastructure, and digitization initiatives is crucial to maintain credibility.
  2. Expanding Trade: Leveraging the Economic and Technology Cooperation Agreement (ETCA) to boost bilateral trade beyond $5 billion.
  3. Maritime Collaboration: Strengthening Indo-Lankan naval patrols to combat piracy, illegal fishing, and narcotics trafficking.
  4. People-Centric Connectivity: Enhancing air, sea, and digital connectivity (e.g., ferry services, undersea cables) to foster people-to-people ties.
  5. Monitoring Sri Lanka’s Debt Crisis: India should work with IMF and other partners to ensure Colombo’s economic recovery is sustainable.

Conclusion:

India’s proactive engagement with Sri Lanka reflects a holistic approach combining security, economic aid, and cultural diplomacy. By addressing Colombo’s immediate needs while ensuring long-term strategic alignment, India reinforces its role as a net security provider and a dependable partner in South Asia. Sustained collaboration will be key to fostering regional stability and countering external geopolitical pressures.

Introduction

The protracted Russia-Ukraine war has exposed the limitations of Western-led peace initiatives, given Russia’s aversion to NATO involvement. As the conflict edges toward a fragile ceasefire, the question of who should oversee its implementation becomes critical. The Global South—comprising nations from Africa, Asia, and Latin America—emerges as a credible alternative due to its neutrality, UN peacekeeping experience, and balanced diplomatic ties.

Body

  1. Challenges with a European-led Peacekeeping Force
  • Russian Opposition: Moscow perceives NATO-backed peacekeepers as a strategic threat, risking further escalation.
  • Public Resistance in Europe: Citizens in France, the UK, and other European nations oppose troop deployment in a high-risk conflict zone.
  • Logistical Dependence on the US: Europe lacks autonomous military logistics, making it reliant on uncertain U.S. support, especially under a potential Trump administration.
  1. Why the Global South is Best Suited
  • Neutrality & Credibility: Countries like India, Brazil, and South Africa have maintained balanced relations with both Russia and the West.
  • Proven Peacekeeping Record:
    • African Union (AU): Successfully managed missions in Sudan, Somalia, and CAR.
    • India: Contributed over 290,000 peacekeepers to 50+ UN missions, including an all-women contingent in Liberia.
  • Demining & Reconstruction Expertise: Nations like Chile bring specialized skills crucial for post-war recovery.
  1. Conditions for Success
  • UNSC Authorization: Ensures legitimacy and broad international support.
  • Clear Ceasefire & Demarcation: Requires meticulous negotiation to avoid flare-ups.
  • Exclusion of NATO Troops: Vital to assuage Russian concerns.
  • Gender-Inclusive Peacekeeping: Female peacekeepers (as demonstrated by India in Liberia) enhance trust and address conflict-related gender violence.
  1. India’s Leadership Opportunity
  • Strategic Neutrality: India’s ties with Russia, Ukraine, and the West position it as an honest broker.
  • Leveraging UN Experience: India can lead negotiations, troop contributions, and post-conflict reconstruction.
  • Countering China’s Proactiveness: Beijing has already appointed a special envoy for Ukraine; India must act decisively to shape outcomes.

Way Forward

  1. Diplomatic Mobilization: India should rally BRICS and Global South nations to propose a UN-backed peacekeeping framework.
  2. Financial & Logistical Support: Seek EU funding while ensuring operational autonomy.
  3. Gender-Sensitive Peacekeeping: Advocate for greater female participation in line with India’s Liberia model.
  4. Long-term Stability: Use the mission to strengthen the Global South’s role in global governance, moving beyond Western-dominated frameworks.

Conclusion

The Ukraine conflict presents a historic opportunity for the Global South to transition from passive observers to active architects of peace. India, with its UN legacy and diplomatic balance, must lead this effort, reinforcing its stature as a responsible global power while shaping a more equitable world order.

Introduction

The World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global Risks Report 2025 identifies misinformation and disinformation as the top short-term global threat. These risks undermine democratic institutions, fuel societal polarization, and disrupt economic stability. India, with its vast internet user base and complex socio-political landscape, is particularly vulnerable to information disorder, necessitating robust policy interventions.

Challenges Posed by Misinformation and Disinformation

  1. Political and Social Polarization:
    • False narratives manipulate voter behavior, deepen societal divides, and incite communal tensions.
    • A study by the Indian School of Business and CyberPeace Foundation found that 46% of disinformation in India is politically motivated, followed by general (33.6%) and religious (16.8%) misinformation.
  2. Foreign Interference and National Security Threats:
    • China has been actively propagating disinformation against India, as seen during the 2017 Doklam standoff, leading to bans on apps like TikTok.
    • Platforms like Weibo operate under state influence, distorting India’s global image.
  3. Erosion of Trust in Media and Democratic Institutions:
    • Declining trust in mainstream media has shifted public reliance to social media, where unverified information spreads rapidly.
    • Deepfakes and AI-generated content exacerbate the problem, making fact-checking harder.
  4. Economic and Public Health Risks:
    • Misinformation triggers consumer boycotts, stock market volatility, and vaccine hesitancy.
    • The WEF warns that high-income nations perceive disinformation as a bigger threat, but India’s digital youth are equally vulnerable.
  5. Regulatory and Surveillance Risks:
    • While laws like the EU’s Digital Services Act promote transparency, excessive regulation may lead to censorship and mass surveillance, undermining democratic freedoms.

Recommended Measures

  1. Strengthening Legal and Regulatory Frameworks:
    • Enact laws mandating transparency in political advertising and algorithmic accountability for social media platforms.
    • Implement audits for Very Large Online Platforms (VLOPs) with over 45 million users, akin to the EU model.
  2. Enhancing Digital Literacy and Public Awareness:
    • Expand initiatives like Shakti – India Election Fact-Checking Collective and the Deepfake Analysis Unit.
    • Promote financial and digital literacy campaigns, such as RBI’s initiative with Amitabh Bachchan.
  3. Boosting Cybersecurity and Fact-Checking Mechanisms:
    • Increase funding for cybersecurity research and independent fact-checking organizations.
    • Mandate risk assessment reports from tech companies to curb algorithmic biases.
  4. International Cooperation Against Disinformation:
    • Form cross-border coalitions to counter Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference (FIMI).
    • Collaborate with global bodies like the UN and WEF for a coordinated response.
  5. Protecting Democratic Safeguards:
    • Ensure content moderation policies do not infringe on free speech while curbing harmful misinformation.
    • Strengthen laws to protect journalists and whistleblowers exposing disinformation networks.

Way Forward

The fight against misinformation is not just a technological challenge but a test of democratic resilience. As the world’s largest democracy, India must lead by example—balancing regulation with freedom, innovation with accountability, and security with inclusivity. By fostering digital literacy, transparent governance, and global cooperation, India can safeguard its unity in diversity while setting a precedent for a truth-resilient digital future.

Introduction:
India and China, two ancient civilizations and emerging global powers, marked the 75th anniversary of diplomatic ties on April 1, 2024. Despite periods of tension—most notably along the Line of Actual Control (LAC)—the bilateral relationship has been anchored by strong historical linkages, increasing economic interdependence, and shared roles in shaping a multipolar global order.

Current Trajectory of Bilateral Relations:

  1. Strategic Leadership as an Anchor:
    • Key milestones: 1950 establishment of ties, 1988 Rajiv Gandhi’s visit for normalization, and recent informal summits between Xi Jinping and Narendra Modi.
    • The leaders have reiterated that the nations are “partners, not rivals.”
  2. Deepening Economic and People-to-People Ties:
    • Bilateral trade has grown from $3 billion in 2000 to over $138 billion in 2024.
    • Cultural and educational exchanges have increased; over 70,000 visas were issued to Indian citizens in Q1 2024.
  3. Dialogue as the Primary Mechanism:
    • Mechanisms such as the Special Representatives’ Meeting on the Boundary Question have been revived to manage border tensions peacefully.
    • Both sides emphasize that differences must not be allowed to turn into disputes.
  4. Global Coordination:
    • India and China share multilateral platforms such as BRICS, SCO, and G-20.
    • As leaders in the Global South, they promote inclusive globalisation and multipolarity.

Key Challenges in the Relationship:

  1. Boundary Dispute and Trust Deficit:
    • The Galwan clash (2020) underscored the volatility of unresolved border issues and deeply impacted public perception in India.
    • Lack of progress on demilitarisation and clarity regarding LAC alignment fuels strategic mistrust.
  2. Strategic Rivalry in the Indo-Pacific:
    • China’s increasing presence in the Indian Ocean and deepening ties with Pakistan challenge India’s security calculus.
    • India’s participation in QUAD is perceived by China as containment.
  3. Trade Imbalance and Economic Dependence:
    • Despite rising trade volumes, India suffers a massive trade deficit, primarily importing electronics, machinery, and chemicals from China.

Opportunities for Constructive Engagement:

  • Economic Synergy: Complementary economies offer scope for supply chain diversification and technological collaboration.
  • Green and Digital Cooperation: Both countries can cooperate in renewable energy, digital economy, and climate change mitigation.
  • People-to-People Diplomacy: Tourism, student exchanges, and joint cultural festivals can soften political tensions.
  • Global South Leadership: India and China can co-lead developmental agendas, particularly in reforming global institutions like the WTO and UNSC.

Way Forward:

  1. Strategic Maturity and De-securitisation:
    • Decouple the boundary issue from the broader relationship. Resume dialogue with sincerity and clarity while maintaining strong border infrastructure.
  2. Reinvigorate Bilateral Mechanisms:
    • Resume suspended bilateral dialogues in defense, culture, and economy. Empower Track-II diplomacy and think-tank engagement.
  3. Balanced Economic Engagement:
    • Promote Indian exports to China; scrutinize critical sector investments while avoiding blanket restrictions. Joint ventures in third countries may help de-risk economic cooperation.
  4. Multilateral Leadership:
    • Collaborate in global platforms on issues like health security, climate finance, and digital governance to shape global norms.

Conclusion:

The China-India relationship is too significant to be held hostage by legacy disputes. With calibrated diplomacy, strategic restraint, and a shared vision for the Global South, the “Dragon-Elephant tango” can transcend historical baggage and evolve into a partnership that shapes the 21st century. The next 75 years must focus on cooperation without compromising sovereignty and competition without confrontation.

Introduction:

The Arctic, once a frozen and largely inaccessible frontier, has transformed into a geopolitical hotspot due to climate change-induced ice melt. This transformation has unlocked new economic, environmental, and strategic concerns, intensifying competition among global and regional powers.

Why Are Tensions Rising in the Arctic?

  1. Climate Change and Ice Melt:
    • Melting ice is opening previously inaccessible shipping routes like the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route, reducing travel time between Europe and Asia.
    • Vast reserves of natural resources—13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of natural gas (USGS, 2009)—have become more accessible.
  2. Competing Territorial Claims:
    • Under UNCLOS, Arctic states can claim seabeds beyond their EEZ if they prove it’s part of their continental shelf.
    • Russia, Canada, and Denmark have submitted overlapping claims to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
  3. Military Posturing:
    • Russia has expanded Arctic bases and naval presence; it possesses the world’s largest fleet of icebreakers.
    • NATO’s recent expansion into Finland and Sweden and its exercises in the Arctic have raised Russian concerns.
  4. U.S.-Canada Dispute:
    • The Northwest Passage is claimed by Canada as internal waters, but the U.S. insists on international status for free navigation.
  5. Greenland and Great Power Politics:
    • The U.S.’s strategic interest in Greenland, especially during the Trump era, and its Pituffik air base has stirred diplomatic tensions with Denmark.

The Arctic Council: Members and Role

  • Members: Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S.
  • Role: Promotes cooperation on scientific research, environmental protection, and the rights of indigenous communities.
  • Limitations: Lacks enforcement powers and is strained post-Ukraine invasion due to Russian isolation.

Geopolitical Significance of the Arctic

  • Economic: Untapped hydrocarbons, rare earth elements (esp. in Greenland), and fish stocks.
  • Strategic:
    • Control over Arctic sea lanes could reshape global trade routes.
    • The GIUK Gap is critical for NATO’s naval defense against Russian submarine access.
  • Environmental and Indigenous Concerns: Melting permafrost, biodiversity loss, and threats to native livelihoods.

Way Forward:

  1. Arctic Treaty Framework:
    • Develop a legally binding Arctic treaty modeled after the Antarctic Treaty System to demilitarize and protect the region.
  2. Reinvigorate the Arctic Council:
    • Expand its mandate to handle dispute resolution and security dialogue.
    • Reintegrate Russia through conditional engagement while upholding international norms.
  3. UNCLOS Reforms:
    • Speed up adjudication of seabed claims and clarify maritime boundaries under international law.
  4. Environmental Safeguards:
    • Global cooperation to protect fragile ecosystems and regulate commercial exploitation.
  5. Scientific and Indigenous Collaboration:
    • Promote joint climate research and ensure Arctic policies respect indigenous rights and knowledge systems.

Conclusion:

The Arctic represents both a promise and a peril—a resource-rich frontier and a flashpoint of great power rivalry. As climate change accelerates the region’s transformation, global stakeholders must act swiftly to create a cooperative, sustainable, and demilitarized Arctic. Preventing the militarization and environmental degradation of this fragile ecosystem is not just in regional interest but a global imperative.

Introduction:

As the Russia-Ukraine war enters its fourth year (2025), the global strategic community stands at a crossroads. What began as a regional conflict has escalated into a protracted proxy war between nuclear powers, notably Russia and the U.S.-led NATO bloc. Recent developments, including ‘Operation Spiderweb’ drone strikes by Ukraine and the revival of peace negotiations in Istanbul, have renewed attention on ending the conflict. Yet, entrenched divisions threaten the fragility of emerging peace proposals.

Body:

  1. Evolving Global Response and Diplomacy:
  1. Revival of Istanbul Peace Process:
    • Peace talks, first stalled in 2022, resumed in May and June 2025 with prisoner swaps and ceasefire drafts.
    • The U.S. under Donald Trump initiated shuttle diplomacy, with proposals to freeze frontlines, ban NATO membership for Ukraine, and offer U.S.-backed security guarantees.
  2. Russia’s Conditions for Peace:
    • Russia demands Ukrainian neutrality, NATO exclusion, denazification, and troop withdrawal.
    • The creation of a buffer zone and threats of imposing peace terms militarily indicate Kremlin’s hardened stance.
  3. Western Strategic Calculations:
    • The NATO Parliamentary Assembly and EU Parliament labelled Russia a ‘state sponsor of terrorism’ in 2022, making formal dialogue difficult.
    • European powers like France and the UK advocate a “Coalition of the Willing” to enforce ceasefire terms, while still supporting Ukraine militarily.
  4. Risk of Escalation:
    • Ukrainian drone strikes allegedly targeting Putin’s convoy in Kursk (May 2025) and bridge bombings suggest a turn toward asymmetric escalation.
    • Russia’s nuclear posture underlines retaliation if sovereignty is threatened, with reference to its nuclear doctrine and expiry of the New START Treaty in 2026.

Way Forward:

  1. Realistic Peace Framework:
    • Peace proposals must balance Ukrainian sovereignty with Russian security guarantees, focusing on neutrality, arms control, and territorial status quo.
  2. Inclusive Multilateral Dialogue:
    • Institutions like the UN, OSCE, and G20 must reassert diplomatic leadership and mediate without overt alignment.
  3. Demilitarisation of Diplomacy:
    • Europe must de-escalate its rhetoric and facilitate gradual sanction relief in return for verifiable peace milestones.
  4. Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Neutrality Model:
    • Lessons from Finlandisation or Austrian neutrality (1955) may serve as templates for Ukraine’s post-war positioning.

Conclusion:

The Russia-Ukraine war has redefined the contours of international diplomacy. While the battlefield remains volatile, renewed peace efforts — though imperfect — must not be squandered. Without bold and inclusive diplomacy that addresses historical grievances, security dilemmas, and sovereign concerns, the current ceasefire talk risks being a mere lull before further chaos. A sustainable peace requires a shift from military triumphalism to pragmatic compromise, with global institutions playing a decisive role.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II – International Relations, Bilateral and Multilateral Diplomacy
  • GS Paper II – Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
  • GS Paper III – Security threats and their management

Previous Years’ Questions Linkage:

  • 2023 GS II: “Discuss the implications of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine on global energy security and multilateral diplomacy.”
  • 2022 GS II: “How is India responding to the strategic and security challenges posed by the Russia-Ukraine conflict?”
  • 2020 GS II: “What is the significance of Indo-Russian strategic cooperation in shaping a multipolar world order?”

📍Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II – Bilateral Relations, International Trade Negotiations
  • GS Paper III – Agriculture: Food Security, MSP, and WTO Commitments
  • GS Paper III – Indian Economy: Liberalization, Trade Policy, and Globalization

Introduction

As India and the United States enter a critical phase of bilateral trade negotiations, agriculture has become a sensitive and strategic domain. Union Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan recently stated that India will prioritize farmers’ interests, especially in the face of U.S. pressure for greater market access for its agricultural and horticultural products. This balancing act involves navigating tariff structures, rural sensitivities, food sovereignty, and long-term trade partnerships.

Body

  1. Current Trade Scenario: India–U.S. Agricultural Exchange
  • As per the NITI Aayog (2024) Report,
    • U.S. agricultural exports to India: $2.22 billion
    • India’s agri exports to the U.S.: $5.75 billion
    • Key Indian exports: Basmati rice, shrimp, spices, processed cereals
    • U.S. seeks access for corn, soybeans, dairy, animal feed
  • Tariff barrier: India maintains average agri tariffs of 39%–50% to protect domestic producers.
  1. Strategic Concerns for India
  • Protecting livelihoods: Over 45% of India’s population depends on agriculture (Source: Economic Survey 2023–24).
  • Price Volatility Risk: Unregulated imports may destabilize prices for Indian crops like maize, pulses, and dairy.
  • Backlash from Rural Communities: Precedents such as the 2020–21 farmer protests underscore political sensitivity.
  • Dairy Sector Protection: Smallholder dairy farming in India is particularly vulnerable to global competition.
  1. Opportunities in Bilateral Trade
  • India can negotiate preferential access for high-value agri-exports (e.g., organic spices, marine products, millet-based items).
  • Potential for collaboration in agri-technology, cold chains, and climate-resilient farming.
  • Scope for mutual agreements on sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards, especially for perishable goods.

Way Forward

  1. Calibrated Tariff Rationalization
    Reduce tariffs gradually on non-essential or non-competitive imports, while retaining protections for key sectors.
  2. Strengthen Farmer Safety Nets
    Expand PM-KISAN, crop insurance, and MSP coverage to absorb shocks from increased imports.
  3. Build Export Readiness
    Support FPOs (Farmer Producer Organisations) and agri-startups to meet U.S. standards and scale value-added exports.
  4. Negotiate SPS and Quality Equivalence
    Focus on non-tariff barriers, improve traceability systems, and seek equivalence for Indian products in the U.S. market.
  5. Engage in Phase-Wise Negotiation
    Adopt a multi-phase approach to trade liberalization, based on performance metrics and farmer impact assessments.

Conclusion

India’s agricultural policy must carefully balance domestic security with global opportunity. While expanding trade with the U.S. can enhance economic ties and unlock export potential, protecting farmer interests remains a constitutional and ethical imperative. A data-driven, phased, and consultative negotiation model—that safeguards food sovereignty while embracing global markets—is the way forward.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • GS2 (2018): “India’s relations with USA have evolved from estranged democracies to strategic partners. Discuss the changes in bilateral relations in the last decade.”
  • GS3 (2019): “What are the challenges to the cropping pattern in India in the context of post-Green Revolution?”
  • GS3 (2021): “What are the challenges and opportunities for India in enhancing agricultural exports?”

Introduction:

India’s outreach to Central Asia has gained significant momentum with institutional platforms such as the India-Central Asia Dialogue, now in its fourth edition. The recent meeting in New Delhi, attended by foreign ministers from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, reflects the region’s firm stance against terrorism and shared commitment to connectivity, regional stability, and financial integration.

Body:

  1. Strategic Relevance of Central Asia for India:
  1. Counter-Terrorism Cooperation:
    • Central Asian nations unequivocally condemned the April 2025 Pahalgam terror attack, expressing solidarity with India.
    • The joint declaration opposed cross-border terrorism, terror financing, radicalisation, and cyber misuse.
    • This marks a strong diplomatic alignment against state-sponsored terrorism, especially targeting the use of proxies.
  2. Geopolitical Leverage:
    • Central Asia serves as a strategic buffer near conflict zones such as Afghanistan and West Asia.
    • India’s ties with these countries help counter Chinese influence (via BRI) and manage Pakistan’s narrative in multilateral forums.
  3. Connectivity and Trade:
    • Dialogue emphasised greater use of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
    • India endorsed Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan’s membership in INSTC, which connects India to Europe via Iran and Central Asia.
  4. Financial Integration:
    • Push for digital payments, inter-bank cooperation, and trade in national currencies to reduce dependency on the dollar and boost commerce.
  1. Current Initiatives and Government Support:
  • Connect Central Asia Policy (2012) revived through high-level engagements and infrastructure initiatives.
  • Chabahar Port developed by India provides a critical alternative route to access Central Asian markets.
  • India’s vision aligns with PM Gati Shakti, Digital India, and Neighbourhood First initiatives.
  • According to the Ministry of Commerce, India-Central Asia trade stood at approx. $2.5 billion in 2023, with scope for exponential growth.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutionalize Security Cooperation:
    • Create a Counter-Terrorism Working Group under the India-Central Asia Dialogue mechanism.
  2. Operationalize INSTC:
    • Fast-track customs harmonization and multi-modal transport agreements for seamless movement of goods.
  3. Boost Soft Power Engagement:
    • Expand ICCR scholarships, technical training, and Hindi/Central Asian cultural exchange programs.
  4. Energy and Resource Diplomacy:
    • Collaborate in solar, gas, uranium, and green hydrogen sectors leveraging India’s RE goals and Central Asia’s resource base.
  5. Digital and Financial Collaboration:
    • Expand UPI-like systems to Central Asian banks; support fintech start-ups to link MSMEs.

Conclusion:

India’s engagement with Central Asia has matured into a strategic partnership rooted in shared values of security, connectivity, and multilateralism. The recent consensus on counter-terrorism and transport corridors shows a promising trajectory. By institutionalizing cooperation and diversifying partnerships, India can emerge as a credible and stable partner in this critical region, enhancing its own strategic autonomy and regional influence.

Syllabus Mapping (GS Paper 2):

  • India and its neighborhood – relations.
  • Bilateral, regional, and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
  • Important international institutions, agencies, and their structure and mandates.

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS Paper 2): “India’s foreign policy is often seen as a balancing act. Discuss with reference to India’s engagement with global powers.”
  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS Paper 2): “Evaluate India’s role and influence in the evolving global order.”
  • UPSC Mains 2017 (GS Paper 2): “What are the key areas of cooperation between India and Central Asia? How does it serve India’s strategic interests?”

Introduction:

India’s foreign policy in the last decade has been marked by strategic ambition, active diplomacy, and global engagements—from neighbourhood-first to multilateral summits like the G20. However, recent criticisms, especially in the context of Operation Sindoor and the Pahalgam terror attacks, raise concerns about India’s perceived diplomatic isolation, with opposition parties questioning the efficacy of diplomatic outreach and failure to garner adequate international support.

Body:

  1. Current Concerns Raised by the Opposition:
  1. Limited Outcome of Diplomatic Delegations:
    • Recent multi-party delegations failed to secure meaningful meetings with global leaders to explain India’s position post-terror attacks.
    • India’s key allies—Russia, U.S., France—have made ambiguous or indirect statements, with no explicit endorsement.
  2. Pakistan’s International Leverage:
    • Despite its domestic and economic challenges, Pakistan has managed to secure:
      • Financial assistance from IMF, ADB, and World Bank.
      • Vice-chair position on a UN panel on terrorism—criticised as a diplomatic setback for India.
  3. Narrative Control Challenges:
    • President Trump’s claims of mediation between India and Pakistan, and Russia’s apparent endorsement, highlight India’s limited influence in countering external narratives.
  1. Broader Challenges in Indian Foreign Policy:
  • Erosion of Multilateral Influence:
    • India’s voice in UN bodies has faced dilution despite being a major democracy and economy.
  • Geopolitical Complexity:
    • Strategic balancing between Quad partners (U.S., Japan) and Russia-Iran axis strains coherence.
  • Lack of Consistent Engagement:
    • Bilateral relations are sometimes issue-specific, lacking institutional depth and follow-up mechanisms.
  • Communication Gaps:
    • India’s global public diplomacy is often reactive, not proactive, in countering adversarial propaganda.

Way Forward:

  1. Strategic Diplomatic Institutionalization:
    • Build permanent crisis-response diplomatic cells for coordinated outreach post major geopolitical events.
  2. Expand Multilateral Coalitions:
    • Invest in global South leadership, revitalise IBSA, BRICS+, and deepen African engagements.
  3. Narrative Diplomacy:
    • Use platforms like UNGA, G-20, SCO, and media diplomacy to shape global discourse effectively.
  4. Strengthen Parliamentary Diplomacy:
    • Revamp multi-party delegation strategy with better planning, credible leadership, and high-level meetings ensured beforehand.
  5. Track 1.5 and Track 2 Diplomacy:
    • Engage think tanks, former diplomats, and academics to build soft consensus globally, even in adverse conditions.

Conclusion:

India’s aspiration to be a Vishwaguru (global leader) must be matched with strategic consistency, proactive diplomacy, and narrative control. While isolated events may not define overall foreign policy failure, recent criticisms underline the need for systematic reforms and sustained global engagement. A recalibrated approach—rooted in institutional strength and inclusive representation—can restore India’s rightful standing in global diplomacy.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper 2:
    • India and its neighborhood – relations.
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India.
    • Important international institutions, agencies, and their structure and mandate.

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS2): “Critically examine the role of India in multilateral organisations amid emerging geopolitical tensions.”
  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS2): “Evaluate India’s position and influence in global affairs in recent years.”
  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS2): “In the context of the growing India-China convergence, examine the challenges to India’s strategic autonomy.”

Introduction:

India-Canada relations, rooted in shared democratic values and deep people-to-people ties, have been marred in recent years by geopolitical tensions, particularly related to Khalistani separatism and allegations against Indian diplomatic agents. The invitation from Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney to Prime Minister Narendra Modi for the G-7 Summit in Kananaskis, Alberta (Canada), however, signals a diplomatic recalibration and an opportunity for both nations to reset relations.

Body:

  1. Background of Diplomatic Tensions:
  • In 2023–24, bilateral ties deteriorated over:
    • The killing of Hardeep Singh Nijjar, a designated Khalistani separatist.
    • Diplomatic retaliations including mutual expulsion of High Commissioners and temporary visa suspensions.
    • Accusations of espionage and interference by both nations.
  • The situation was compounded by legacy grievances, such as the 1985 Air India bombing, which remains a sensitive issue in Indian diplomacy.
  1. Significance of G-7 Invitation:
  1. Restoration of Diplomatic Dialogue:
    • Invitation indicates a shift towards reinstating full diplomatic engagement.
    • Statement by PM Carney emphasized cooperation in law enforcement and addressing security concerns.
  2. Revitalization of Bilateral Ties:
    • PM Modi described the upcoming meeting as one that will bring “renewed vigour” to ties.
    • Highlights mutual recognition of shared interests beyond isolated incidents.
  3. Strategic Multilateral Opportunity:
    • G-7 summits offer India a platform to engage with major global powers (U.S., France, U.K., Japan, Germany, Italy).
    • With global concerns like climate change, AI regulation, and de-risking supply chains, India’s participation aligns with its global aspirations.
  4. Diaspora and Commercial Connect:
    • Over 1.4 million Indo-Canadians form a vital bridge.
    • Canada is a significant partner in education, energy, agriculture, and technology.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutionalize Law Enforcement Cooperation:
    • Enhance security dialogue through joint working groups and counter-terrorism frameworks.
  2. Reframe the Narrative:
    • Shift public diplomacy towards mutual strengths, avoiding disproportionate focus on fringe elements.
  3. Expand Economic Partnership:
    • Reinvigorate CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement) negotiations.
    • Strengthen cooperation in clean energy, critical minerals, and innovation ecosystems.
  4. Cultural and Academic Diplomacy:
    • Promote academic exchange and diaspora-led initiatives to foster soft power diplomacy.

Conclusion:

India’s attendance at the G-7 summit at Canada’s invitation is more than symbolic—it offers a strategic moment to rebuild trust, reaffirm mutual interests, and reengage multilaterally. As democracies with vibrant civil societies and economic potential, India and Canada must use this window to transition from diplomatic chill to constructive engagement, ensuring long-term partnership based on mutual respect and shared values.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper 2:
    • India and its neighborhood – relations.
    • Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India.
    • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests.

Relevant Previous Year Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2022 (GS Paper 2): “Do you think India’s foreign policy is becoming more pragmatic than ever before? Discuss.”
  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS Paper 2): “’India’s engagement with regional multilateral groupings to enhance its influence in the region has been a mixed bag.’ Critically examine.”
  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS Paper 2): “’India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity which cannot be rolled back.’ Discuss.”

Introduction:

The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), announced during the G20 Summit in New Delhi (2023), is an ambitious connectivity initiative spanning India, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, and Europe. It aims to integrate multimodal logistics (ship, rail, road) to enhance trade, energy flow, and digital infrastructure, serving as a counterbalance to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). However, its implementation is being challenged by the ongoing West Asia conflict and regulatory fragmentation among partner nations.

Body:

  1. Strategic Significance of IMEC:
  1. Geo-economic Importance:
    • Aims to reduce shipping times between India and Europe by up to 40%.
    • Offers a secure, rules-based alternative to BRI.
  2. Energy and Digital Integration:
    • Promotes green hydrogen, electricity grids, data cables, and sustainable transport.
  3. India’s Global Positioning:
    • Enhances India’s Act West policy and cements its role in global infrastructure diplomacy.
  1. Major Challenges:
  1. Geopolitical Volatility:
    • The Israel-Gaza conflict and regional instability in West Asia may derail route security and coordination.
  2. Systemic Harmonisation Issues:
    • As flagged by Dammu Ravi (MEA Secretary), absence of harmonised technical, phytosanitary, customs, and taxation standards across IMEC nations impedes operational coherence.
  3. Institutional and Financial Gaps:
    • Lack of a dedicated Secretariat and funding mechanism.
    • Unlike BRI, IMEC currently lacks a clear financial roadmap or public-private investment model.
  4. Competition from BRI:
    • China’s BRI, backed by over $1 trillion in investment, presents a formidable alternative, especially for resource-rich nations.

Way Forward:

  1. Institutional Coordination:
    • Establish a permanent IMEC Secretariat to oversee regulatory alignment, stakeholder engagement, and project execution.
  2. Geopolitical Diplomacy:
    • Proactively engage with regional stakeholders to maintain stability.
    • Align IMEC with multilateral forums (e.g., I2U2, EU-India Strategic Partnership).
  3. Regulatory Harmonisation:
    • Develop common standards in logistics, customs, and taxation across IMEC nations using digital platforms and AI.
  4. Public-Private Investment:
    • Encourage global sovereign funds and Indian companies to co-finance corridor development.
    • Model infrastructure finance on Gati Shakti and National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP) frameworks.

Conclusion:

IMEC holds transformative potential for India’s connectivity, energy security, and trade competitiveness. However, without strategic diplomacy, institutional innovation, and investment assurance, the corridor risks becoming a missed opportunity. Timely coordination and visionary leadership are essential to turn IMEC into a pillar of India’s 21st-century economic diplomacy.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II – International Relations: Bilateral and multilateral agreements; India’s relations with West Asia and Europe.
  • GS Paper III – Infrastructure: Investment models; public-private partnership in international infrastructure.

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS II (2023): “The expanding footprint of India in West Asia and Central Asia has enhanced its influence in the region.” Discuss.
  • GS II (2020): “‘India’s foreign policy is undergoing a major transformation.’ Discuss in light of India’s connectivity initiatives.”
  • GS II (2017): “Indian diaspora has an important role to play in South-East Asia’s economic development.” Discuss.

 Key Concerns Raised by the USTR Report:

  1. Inconsistent IP Enforcement: The USTR highlights India’s inadequate enforcement against piracy, counterfeiting, and trade secret theft, particularly in pharmaceuticals, ICT, and media sectors.
  2. Patent Law Ambiguities: Section 3(d) of the Indian Patents Act restricts evergreening, causing disputes with MNCs over drug patents (e.g., Novartis vs. Union of India, 2013).
  3. High Tariffs on IP-Intensive Goods: India imposes steep customs duties on medical devices and solar equipment, seen as trade barriers by the U.S.
  4. Digital Piracy & Copyright Issues: Unauthorized sharing of video games, academic books, and cable signal theft remain unresolved.

Implications for India:

  • Trade Relations: The U.S. may link IPR compliance to future trade deals (e.g., proposed FTA) or impose sanctions under the U.S. Trade Act.
  • Domestic Innovation: Strict IPR norms could deter generic drug production (affecting schemes like Ayushman Bharat) but may boost R&D investments.
  • Global Standing: Persistent listing weakens India’s position in forums like the WTO, where it advocates for flexible TRIPS provisions for developing nations.

Way Forward:

  • Balanced IP Policy: Strengthen enforcement while safeguarding public interest (e.g., compulsory licensing for essential medicines).
  • Stakeholder Consultation: Address ambiguities in patent laws via dialogues with industry and global partners.
  • Digital Rights Management: Enhance anti-piracy measures, as seen in the Cinematograph (Amendment) Act, 2023.

Conclusion: India must align its IPR regime with global standards without compromising access to affordable healthcare and technology, ensuring a win-win for innovation and public welfare.

Linkage to Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II (International Relations): Bilateral agreements involving India & the U.S.; issues related to intellectual property rights (IPR).
  • GS Paper III (Economy): IPR and innovation; trade barriers; impact of foreign policies on Indian economy.
  • GS Paper II (Governance): Government policies & interventions for IP protection.

Previous Year Questions:

  • “Discuss India’s stand on the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement and its implications for the pharmaceutical sector.” (UPSC Mains 2018, GS II)
  • “How do intellectual property rights affect innovation and technology transfer in developing countries? Examine with reference to India.” (UPSC Mains 2020, GS III)

Introduction:

India’s strategic outreach to Central Asia, a region rich in energy and mineral resources and a crucial transit route to Eurasia, has gained renewed momentum. The recent India-Central Asia Business Council and the upcoming 4th India-Central Asia Dialogue reflect this renewed engagement. External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar has emphasized enhancing trade through Chabahar Port, operationalizing mutual trade settlements in national currencies, and building infrastructure under the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC). These efforts align with India’s objectives of economic diversification, strategic autonomy, and regional security.

Body:

  1. Key Steps Taken to Enhance India-Central Asia Relations:
  1. Connectivity Initiatives:
    • Promotion of Chabahar Port as a gateway to Central Asia bypassing Pakistan.
    • Reviving and operationalizing the INSTC to reduce freight time and costs.
    • India joined Ashgabat Agreement (2018) to enhance multi-modal connectivity.
  2. Economic and Trade Engagement:
    • Bilateral trade reached $2 billion (2024), but below potential.
    • Initiatives include Special Rupee Vostro Accounts and exploration of UPI for cross-border payments.
    • Push for mutual trade in national currencies to reduce dollar dependency and transaction costs.
  3. Multilateral Platforms:
    • Regular ministerial and summit-level engagements such as:
      • India-Central Asia Dialogue (since 2019)
      • India-Central Asia Virtual Summit (2022)
      • Engagement through Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
  4. Security and Strategic Cooperation:
    • Collaboration on counter-terrorism, especially in the backdrop of Operation Sindoor and Taliban developments.
    • Dialogue includes regional security, technology sharing, and development cooperation.
  1. Challenges in the Partnership:
  • Geopolitical Barriers:
    • Lack of direct land access due to Pakistan’s denial of transit.
    • Influence of China and Russia in the region complicates India’s outreach.
  • Limited Private Sector Participation:
    • Low Indian investment presence and weak financial sector integration.
  • Trade Imbalance and Infrastructure Gaps:
    • High transport costs and lack of last-mile connectivity hinder deeper trade.

Way Forward:

  • Operationalize INSTC Fully:
    • Fast-track agreements and infrastructure across Iran, Azerbaijan, and Russia for freight corridors.
  • Deepen Financial Integration:
    • Expand Vostro accounts and facilitate UPI-based payment systems with Central Asian banks.
  • Energy Diplomacy and Investments:
    • Prioritize joint ventures in oil, gas, and uranium mining in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan.
  • Strategic Soft Power:
    • Increase academic exchanges, digital diplomacy, and IT cooperation to enhance people-to-people ties.
  • Institutionalize Leadership Summit:
    • Make India-Central Asia Summit an annual feature to provide political direction.

Conclusion:

India’s engagement with Central Asia is no longer optional—it is a strategic imperative. Strengthening connectivity via Chabahar, integrating financial systems, and securing energy supplies are essential for India’s global ambitions and regional balance. With consistent diplomacy, mutual trust, and innovation, India can emerge as a reliable partner for Central Asia in the multipolar world order.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS II – International Relations: India and its neighborhood, bilateral, regional groupings and agreements
  • GS III – Infrastructure: Energy, Transport, and Economic Development

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC GS II 2020: “China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia.” Discuss.
  • UPSC GS II 2018: What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of “trade war”, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?
  • UPSC GS II 2015: The increasing influence of India on Central Asia will have far-reaching impacts on regional geopolitics. Discuss.

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