Introduction

The debate over diverting temple funds for building colleges in Tamil Nadu recently reignited public discourse on the regulation of religious institutions. Critics question whether secular purposes can be financed through religious endowments. However, this debate is not new. Rooted in colonial and post-colonial reforms, temple regulation in south India—particularly in Tamil Nadu—has historically evolved as a social justice mechanism. These legal and constitutional arrangements not only uphold state neutrality but also enable redistribution through secular governance of temple wealth.

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  1. Historical & Legal Framework
  • Regulation began with Religious Endowment Regulation (1817) during British rule. By 1920, the Justice Party formalised state control via the Hindu Religious Endowments Act.
  • The current Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments (HRCE) Act, 1959:
    • Section 36 allows surplus temple funds to be diverted for public good with the Commissioner’s approval.
    • Section 66 explicitly permits use for educational institutions, including study of Hindu religion and architecture.
  • Judicial backing: Constitutional courts have upheld the HRCE Act as consistent with Article 25 and 26, balancing religious freedom with public interest.
  1. Cultural and Historical Context
  • In the Chola and Vijayanagara eras, temples were socio-cultural hubs: they functioned as educational centres, welfare distributors, and cultural promoters.
  • Inscriptions and structures like mandapams were used for teaching, supporting the historical logic of utilizing temple wealth for education and public welfare.
  1. Social Justice and Anti-Caste Reforms
  • South India, led by movements like the Self-Respect Movement, leveraged state oversight to:
  • Enable temple entry for Dalits (1936, 1947 legislations).
  • Appoint non-Brahmin priests through government intervention—an outcome of decades of legal battles.
  • Government regulation prevented elite capture of religious wealth and allowed its redistributive use for public goods.
  1. Counter-Arguments and Concerns
  • Critics argue this violates religious autonomy under Article 26.
  • However, state regulation targets only secular aspects, not rituals, and follows due legal procedure.
  • Misuse risks exist but are mitigated through institutional checks under the HRCE framework.

Way Forward

  • Transparency in fund allocation: Ensure that funds are used only after due maintenance of temples and for legally sanctioned purposes.
  • Public awareness: Clarify the legal and historical legitimacy of such decisions to reduce political and communal polarisation.
  • Periodic audits: Strengthen institutional accountability through independent audits and public reporting.
  • Inclusivity in decision-making: Involve community stakeholders, especially marginalized caste groups, in fund utilization discussions.

Conclusion

The use of surplus temple funds for education is not a diversion from tradition—it is a continuation of historical practices and a constitutional commitment to social justice. In a secular democracy, state oversight of religious institutions—limited to secular aspects—is not only legal but also essential to ensure inclusive development. Reversing this model would undo a century of anti-caste reforms and egalitarian progress achieved through the democratic regulation of temple resources.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • GS II – 2019: “Individual rights and social responsibilities are complementary to each other. In the light of this statement examine the role of State in regulating religious institutions.”
  • GS I – 2020: “Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-layered social reality of India?”
  • GS II – 2016: “To what extent is Article 32 a cornerstone of the Indian Constitution?”
  • GS I – 2018: “Discuss whether the formation of new cultural identities is essential to the process of social inclusion.”

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper I: Social empowerment, communalism, caste and regionalism
  • GS Paper II: Role of State in social justice, Government policies and interventions, Secularism
  • GS Paper IV: Ethics and accountability in public life (optional linkage in case studies)

Sources:

  • Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1959
  • The Hindu editorial by Manuraj Shunmugasundaram (2025)
  • Inscriptions and historical records from Chola and Vijayanagara periods
  • Supreme Court judgments on Article 25 and 26 interpretations
  • HRCE Department data and state audit reports

Introduction

Despite the enactment of the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, and the inclusion of Section 304B (dowry death) and Section 498A (cruelty by husband/in-laws) in the Indian Penal Code (IPC), dowry-related deaths remain alarmingly high in India. Recent NCRB data (2022) highlights systemic issues in both law enforcement and judicial processes, exacerbating the suffering of victims and perpetuating impunity.

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  1. Alarming Trends in Dowry Deaths
  • According to NCRB (2017–2022), an average of 7,000 dowry deaths are reported annually — almost 20 women daily.
  • States like UP, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal account for over 60% of these deaths, while Delhi alone accounts for 30% of reported cases among major cities.
  • Many more cases remain unreported due to familial and societal pressures.
  1. Systemic Failures in Investigation and Prosecution
  • Low Charge-Sheeting Rate: Only about 65% of reported dowry death cases were charge-sheeted.
  • Delayed Investigations: As of end-2022, 67% of cases under investigation remained pending for over 6 months.
  • Judicial Backlog: Of 6,500 cases sent for trial annually, only 100 result in convictions. Over 90% remain pending, and many result in acquittals due to lack of evidence.
  • Compromises and Withdrawals: Many cases are diluted through social/family pressure, plea bargains, or pre-trial settlements.
  1. Socio-Cultural Factors
  • Patriarchal norms, female financial dependence, and lack of awareness contribute to underreporting and continuation of dowry practices.
  • Fear of social stigma, honour, and legal reprisal deters families from pursuing justice.

Way Forward

  1. Legal and Institutional Reform
  • Fast-track courts for gender-based crimes, with a mandatory timeline for trials under Section 304B IPC.
  • Amend procedural laws to allow video testimonies, anonymous reporting, and victim-witness protection schemes.
  1. Police and Judiciary Accountability
  • Enforce mandatory charge-sheet filing within 60 days in all dowry-related death cases.
  • Regular training of law enforcement officers and judges on gender-sensitive investigation and trial procedures.
  1. Preventive and Social Measures
  • Implement community awareness programs through National Commission for Women (NCW) and local panchayats.
  • Strengthen implementation of Dowry Prohibition Officers under the Dowry Prohibition Act.
  • Promote economic independence of women through targeted skill training and employment schemes.

Conclusion

Dowry deaths reflect the persistent social failure to uphold women’s dignity and safety. Legal provisions without timely and effective enforcement remain mere formalities. A multi-pronged approach combining legal reform, police accountability, and social transformation is essential to dismantle this deeply entrenched practice. Justice delayed not only denies relief to the victim’s families but also emboldens the perpetrators — a situation India must no longer tolerate.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • GS I (2021): “The long-sustained image of India as a women-respecting society is on trial.”
  • GS II (2020): “Laws, institutions and bodies for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections have failed to deliver.”
  • GS II (2019): “Do you think that the marriage laws in India are gender-biased and discriminatory? Examine.”

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation
  • GS Paper I: Salient features of Indian society, Role of women and women’s organizations, Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism
  • GS Paper II: Mechanisms, laws, institutions and bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections

Sources:

  • National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 2022 Report
  • Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
  • Indian Penal Code Sections 304B and 498A
  • Ministry of Women and Child Development Annual Report, 2023
  • National Commission for Women (NCW) Briefs, 2024

Introduction

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) are among India’s most isolated and socio-economically disadvantaged communities. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, six major tribes—including Jarawas, Onge, Shompen, Andamanese, Sentinelese, and Nicobarese—have historically lived in seclusion. Accurate enumeration and delivery of welfare to these groups are essential but complex, given their unique socio-cultural practices, geographical isolation, and vulnerability to external contact.

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  1. Jarawa Tribe: Demographics and History
  • The Jarawas, considered one of the world’s oldest hunter-gatherer tribes, live in nomadic bands of 40–50 individuals in forested interiors.
  • As per Census 2011, their population was 380, out of the total 28,530 ST individuals in the islands.
  • According to 2025 estimates, Jarawa population has increased to 647, showing the impact of proactive government intervention.
  1. Government’s Efforts and Achievements
  • The Ministry of Tribal Affairs and Union Territory Administration have taken a non-intrusive, welfare-focused approach:
    • Implementation of PM-JANMAN (Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan) to reach PVTGs with targeted schemes.
    • Health surveillance and preventive care were delivered without disrupting their cultural practices, reducing fatalities from diseases like measles and malaria.
    • Trust-based relationship built since 1998 helped in accurate enumeration and welfare delivery.
    • Satellite imagery and contact-based tracking enhanced accuracy of population estimates and geographical mapping.
  1. Challenges Ahead
  • Lack of updated census data hinders precise policy formulation and scheme implementation.
  • Physical and cultural isolation makes integration without interference difficult.
  • Infrastructure projects like the Andaman Trunk Road (ATR) risk unwanted intrusion into tribal areas.
  • High risk of disease transmission, especially post-COVID-19, makes frequent physical contact sensitive.

Way Forward

  1. Ethical and Culturally Sensitive Census Methods
  • Use trained anthropologists, health workers, and local mediators for enumeration.
  • Respect tribal autonomy and privacy, especially of uncontacted groups like the Sentinelese.
  1. Institutional Strengthening for PVTGs
  • Strengthen Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) for continuous monitoring and policy feedback.
  • Expand digital tracking tools (e.g., GIS and satellite monitoring) for remote population tracking.
  1. Sustainable Development with Minimal Intervention
  • Maintain zero-intrusion zones around PVTG habitats.
  • Limit public access to ATR and impose ecological and cultural impact assessments on future projects.
  1. Health and Education as Supplements, Not Replacements
  • Provide preventive healthcare as a supplement to their traditional practices.
  • Introduce context-sensitive education modules if and when communities are ready, ensuring preservation of indigenous knowledge.

Conclusion

The case of the Jarawa tribe exemplifies a successful balance between proactive welfare and cultural preservation. As India approaches the 2027 Census, lessons from the Andaman model must inform broader policies for PVTG enumeration and welfare. A rights-based, trust-centric, and culturally respectful approach will ensure their dignified inclusion in India’s development journey.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper I: Indian Society – Salient features of tribal communities in India; Role of census
  • GS Paper II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections; Government policies for development in tribal areas
  • GS Paper III: Conservation, environmental issues and development vs. displacement

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2022 (GS I): Discuss the changes in tribal communities of India in the context of increasing urbanization and economic development.
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2021 (GS II): “Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes.”
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2013 (GS II): The Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006 has brought about a significant change in the lives of forest dwellers. Discuss.

Sources:

  • Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India
  • Census of India 2011 & Census 2027 updates
  • The Hindu (July 2025 report)
  • PM-JANMAN Dashboard (2024–25)
  • International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)

Introduction

The peopling of the Indian subcontinent is a subject of multidisciplinary inquiry, drawing from archaeology, genetics, anthropology, and linguistics. According to geneticists such as David Reich (Harvard) and K. Thangaraj (CCMB), modern Indians are the result of admixture between two ancient and genetically divergent populations—Ancestral North Indians (ANI) and Ancestral South Indians (ASI). This scientific understanding is reshaping how we view ethnicity, caste, and migration in India.

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  1. Genetic Origins and Admixture
  • The 2009 landmark study, “Reconstructing Indian Population History”, based on genome-wide data from 25 Indian populations, revealed:
    • ANI share ancestry with West Asians, Central Asians, and Europeans.
    • ASI are of distinct East Eurasian origin, primarily found among tribal and southern populations.
  • These populations mixed extensively between 3,000–4,000 years ago, creating a gradient of genetic diversity across India.
  • Tribes in South India and the Andamanese (AASI) are more genetically isolated, with some lineages dating back 60,000 years.
  1. Haplogroups and Caste Stratification
  • A 2003 study by P.P. Majumder‘s team analyzed haplogroups—genetic markers of shared ancestry.
    • Found high frequency of specific lineages in tribal groups.
    • Observed stratified gene flow: highest ancestral diversity in tribes, moderate in lower castes, and least in upper castes.
  • This offers biological support to the social construction of the varna system and its endogamous character.
  1. Intermarriage and Social Change
  • Despite deep historical divisions, modernisation and urbanisation are slowly reshaping social boundaries:
    • Census 2011: ~6% inter-caste marriages, ~1% inter-faith.
    • Urban areas and higher education promote social mobility and genetic admixture.
  • The upcoming 2027 Census may reflect further changes, indicating a gradual breakdown of endogamous practices in urban India.

Way Forward

  • Policy & Education: Promote scientific literacy and genetic education to challenge caste prejudices.
  • Census Inclusion: Future censuses should disaggregate data on inter-caste/inter-faith marriages to track sociogenetic mobility.
  • Anthropological Research: Encourage interdisciplinary studies combining genetics, sociology, and history for policy insight.
  • Community Outreach: Support NGOs and civil society in promoting social integration beyond caste and ethnic lines.

Conclusion

The genetic history of India dismantles rigid notions of racial purity or fixed social hierarchies. Instead, it reveals that admixture and migration are foundational to Indian identity. Understanding India’s peopling is not only a scientific pursuit but also a means to foster social harmony, cultural integration, and inclusive nationalism.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper I – Indian Society: Salient features of Indian society; Diversity of India; Role of women and women’s organization; Population and associated issues.
  • GS Paper I – History and Culture: Post-indus civilization, peopling of India, and cultural continuity.

Relevant PYQs

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2020 – GS Paper I: Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multicultural Indian Society?
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2015 – GS Paper I: Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism—Discuss the mechanisms for social empowerment in India.

Sources:

  • David Reich et al., “Reconstructing Indian Population History” (2009), Nature.
  • P.P. Majumder, “Ethnic Dimensions of Human Genetic Diversity” (2003).
  • Census of India 2011, Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner.
  • IGNOU BA Anthropology – Population Genetics and Human Variation Modules.

Introduction:
Ulrich Beck, in his book Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, argues that modern societies have transitioned from industrial societies focused on wealth distribution to ones preoccupied with managing risks—environmental, technological, and health-related—created by modernization itself.

Concept of Risk Society:

  • Beck identifies three stages of modernity:
    1. Pre-industrial society – Risks were natural (famines, epidemics).
    2. Industrial society – Risks emerged from production (pollution, resource depletion).
    3. Risk society – Risks are manufactured (nuclear disasters, pandemics, climate change).
  • Unlike natural risks, manufactured risks (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima, COVID-19) are global, unpredictable, and often irreversible.
  • Reflexive modernization suggests societies must continuously adapt to self-created risks.

Gendered Impact of Risks:

  • Women in developing nations bear a disproportionate burden due to:
    • Caregiving roles: Managing household risks (water scarcity, health crises).
    • Economic vulnerability: Limited access to resources, land, and financial independence.
    • Health disparities: Higher exposure to pollution (indoor air pollution from cooking fuels) and malnutrition (NFHS-5 shows 57% of Indian women are anaemic vs. 25% men).
    • Climate change impact: Women in agriculture face food insecurity due to crop failures.

Conclusion:
Beck’s theory highlights the need for equitable risk governance. Policies must address gender disparities by empowering women economically, improving healthcare access, and integrating gender-sensitive disaster management frameworks.

Syllabus Linkage:

  1. GS Paper I (Society):
    • Effects of globalization on Indian society.
    • Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism.
  2. GS Paper II (Governance):
    • Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services.
    • Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections.
  3. GS Paper III (Disaster Management):
    • Environmental pollution and degradation.
    • Disaster and disaster management.
  4. GS Paper IV (Ethics):
    • Ethical issues in international relations and funding.
    • Corporate governance.

 

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) for Reference:

  1. “COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India.” Comment. (GS I, 2020)
  2. Discuss the impact of climate change on women in rural India. (GS III, 2021)

Explain the concept of ‘reflexive modernization’ and its relevance in contemporary society. (GS IV, 2019 – Philosophy-based question)

Introduction

India’s urban areas, housing over 30% of the population, face severe challenges like water scarcity, heatwaves, and power shortages (e.g., Bengaluru and Hyderabad). These issues underscore the gaps in achieving SDG-11, which aims for inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities by 2030.

Challenges in Achieving SDG-11

  1. Climate Resilience Deficits – Cities like Chennai and Jaipur show uneven disaster preparedness (Annual Survey of Indian City Systems 2023).
  2. Inclusivity Gaps – Ahmedabad ranks high, but Jaipur lags in economic and social participation (NFHS-5, PLFS data).
  3. Sustainability Issues – Surat leads in sustainability, while Kolkata struggles with waste management and pollution.
  4. Safety Concerns – Bengaluru ranks safest, but Kolkata has high crime rates (NCRB data).

Limitations of Existing Indices

  • NITI Aayog’s SDG Urban Index covers only 4 indicators (Swachh Survekshan, PMAY-U, etc.), missing broader SDG-11 metrics.
  • Ease of Living Index lacks climate resilience parameters.
  • Global indices (Mercer, Economist) fail to capture Indian urban realities.

Way Forward

  1. Localized Governance – Cities need unique resilience plans (e.g., Chennai’s flood management).
  2. Real-time Data – Use Smart Cities Mission’s Command Centres for dynamic monitoring.
  3. Urban Poverty Surveys – Replace outdated Census 2011 data with State-level urban poor surveys.
  4. Comprehensive SDG-11 Index – Expand indicators to include climate adaptation, inclusivity, and safety.

Conclusion

India must adopt data-driven, city-specific policies to bridge gaps in urban sustainability. Strengthening urban local bodies (ULBs) and leveraging technology will be key to achieving SDG-11.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS-I: Urbanization, their problems and remedies.
  • GS-II: Government policies for urban development (Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT).
  • GS-III: Environmental pollution and degradation, climate change.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • 2023: “Discuss the challenges of urban resilience in the context of climate change. Suggest measures to make Indian cities more sustainable.” (GS-I)
  • 2021: *”Examine the role of SDG-11 in ensuring sustainable urban development in India.”* (GS-II)
  • 2019: “How far are India’s urban governance structures responsible for the failure in addressing urban environmental issues?” (GS-III)

This answer integrates multi-disciplinary insights (GS-I, II, III), aligns with UPSC’s demand for policy analysis, and uses recent reports (NITI Aayog, NFHS-5) for evidence-based arguments.

Introduction:

Stubble burning in India, particularly in states like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, has been a recurrent problem, contributing significantly to air pollution, especially during the winter months. While the environmental consequences of stubble burning have been well-documented, the underlying causes are more complex, involving both government policy and market failures. A recent study by Sujit Raghunathrao Jagadale and Javed M. Shaikh examines the issue through the concepts of ‘governmentality’ and market failure, offering a nuanced understanding of the systemic issues that lead to stubble burning. This answer delves into these aspects, identifies the core reasons behind the issue, and suggests plausible remedies.

Body:

Governmentality and Market Failure:

The concept of ‘governmentality,’ coined by French sociologist Michel Foucault, refers to the ways in which governments, instead of using direct coercion, induce self-regulation among citizens. In the context of stubble burning, the government indirectly encourages farmers to engage in practices like mono-cropping of wheat and rice to meet the growing food demands of the nation, through policies like the Minimum Support Price (MSP) system. This incentivizes short-term, unsustainable farming practices, pushing farmers towards stubble burning as an affordable and quick method to prepare the land for the next crop.

The market failure aspect of the issue stems from India’s neoliberal agricultural policies, where the MSP system, while offering guaranteed procurement prices for crops like wheat and rice, discourages crop diversification. As a result, farmers are left with limited options for sustainable practices. Additionally, the inefficiency of agricultural marketing systems, such as the monopoly of middlemen (arhtias), exacerbates the problem by offering low prices for farm produce, trapping farmers in cycles of debt. This further marginalizes farmers and leaves them with little incentive to abandon stubble burning.

Systemic Reasons for Stubble Burning:

Several systemic reasons contribute to stubble burning:

  1. Incentivization of Mono-cropping: The MSP system encourages the cultivation of rice and wheat, leading to a monoculture system that makes it difficult for farmers to adopt alternative, sustainable farming practices.
  2. Lack of Crop Diversification: Government policies prioritize wheat and rice production, leaving little room for other crops that could potentially offer more sustainable solutions to soil preparation.
  3. Inefficient Agricultural Marketing System: Middlemen (arhtias) control prices, providing farmers with low returns on their crops and forcing them into debt. This limits their ability to invest in sustainable alternatives.
  4. Absence of Affordable Alternatives: Despite penalties for stubble burning, the government offers few affordable and effective alternatives for farmers to manage crop residue.
  5. Cultural and Economic Pressures: The socio-economic pressure on farmers to meet societal aspirations and the rising cost of inputs, combined with stagnating MSP rates, leads to a dependency on quick-fix solutions like stubble burning.

Plausible Remedies:

Several remedies can be implemented to address the issue of stubble burning:

  1. Development of a Market for Stubble-Based Products: One of the key solutions is to create a viable market for stubble and its by-products. This could include developing stubble-based fodder, energy products (like pellets), and packaging materials. A sustainable market for stubble could incentivize farmers to view it as a valuable resource rather than waste.
  2. Strengthening the Agricultural Marketing System: It is essential to improve market linkages, price transparency, and fairness to ensure that farmers get better returns for their produce. This would help break the cycle of debt dependency on middlemen.
  3. Government Intervention and Policy Reforms: The government could offer subsidies or financial incentives to farmers for adopting alternative stubble management methods like mulching or composting. Regulatory interventions such as prohibiting stubble burning or providing selective permits could also be considered, provided they are accompanied by effective alternatives.
  4. Cultural and Socio-Economic Transformation: Addressing aspirational consumption, which often leads to the adoption of unsustainable farming practices, can be achieved by involving cultural organizations and community leaders. These bodies can play a role in promoting sustainable farming practices and reducing the pressure on farmers to conform to urban consumption patterns.
  5. Promoting Crop Diversification: Policy measures to encourage crop diversification by offering better MSP rates for non-rice and non-wheat crops could reduce the dependency on mono-cropping and stubble burning.

Way Forward:

To address the stubble burning issue effectively, it is essential to take a multi-pronged approach that includes policy reform, market-driven solutions, and a cultural shift in farming practices. Government agencies need to work closely with farmers, market actors, and agricultural scientists to develop practical solutions that are financially viable for farmers. Collaborative efforts between the state, industry, and rural communities will be key to creating a sustainable agricultural ecosystem that is both environmentally and economically beneficial.

Conclusion:

Stubble burning in India is not merely an environmental issue but a systemic challenge rooted in government policies and market failures. The neoliberal policies that promote mono-cropping and the inefficiency of the agricultural marketing system have left farmers with limited alternatives, pushing them towards stubble burning as a last resort. Addressing this issue requires a holistic approach that involves both regulatory reforms and market-based incentives to ensure sustainable farming practices. By repositioning stubble burning as a symptom of systemic issues, India can move towards more effective and long-term solutions to this pressing environmental problem.

Link to Previous Years’ Questions:

This question is related to previous years’ UPSC Mains questions that have focused on environmental issues, agricultural policies, and the socio-economic aspects of rural India. For example:

  • 2019 GS Paper II: “Discuss the role of the state in addressing the agrarian distress in India, particularly in the context of the challenges faced by farmers.”
  • 2020 GS Paper III: “Analyze the implications of government policies on sustainable farming practices in India.”

Introduction:

The Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023, has catalyzed a major shift in political discourse, pushing gender equity to the forefront of Indian politics. However, this bill has also exposed the intricate relationship between structural and interpersonal aspects of gender equity. The implementation of this bill is deeply entangled with the dynamics of power, social norms, and personal relationships, which complicates the feminist narrative and its reception in India.

Body:

  1. Structural vs. Interpersonal Gender Inequity:
    The issue of gender inequity can be examined through two distinct lenses: the structural and the interpersonal. While structural inequality addresses systemic discrimination, such as unequal access to education, employment, and political power, the interpersonal dynamics refer to the day-to-day relationships between men and women. The Women’s Reservation Bill focuses primarily on the structural dimensions, but the personal realm also plays a crucial role in shaping gender roles and expectations.
  2. Challenges in Mainstream Feminism:
    Modern feminist discourse often tends to blend these two dimensions—structural and interpersonal—creating confusion and alienating potential allies. For instance, feminist arguments that categorize all forms of male behavior as inherently patriarchal may fail to acknowledge the complexities of personal relationships, where love, care, and mutual support also play significant roles. Such generalizations can obscure the real, nuanced progress achieved through small shifts in family and social dynamics, especially within marginalized communities.
  3. The Blurring of Inequities:
    Another challenge lies in the tendency to group different forms of gendered oppression together, regardless of their severity. The struggles of an urban, financially independent woman are not the same as those of a rural woman facing physical safety threats. By collapsing these into a single narrative, feminism risks erasing the diversity of women’s experiences and creating unnecessary antagonism between genders, thus weakening the solidarity necessary for broader social change.

Way Forward:

To achieve effective gender equity, it is imperative that feminist discourse becomes more inclusive and recognizes the complexities of both structural and interpersonal gender dynamics. Feminism should avoid antagonistic rhetoric that alienates potential allies, particularly men, and instead adopt a more compassionate and nuanced approach. Policies should be tailored to address the specific needs of diverse women, with a focus on both societal reform and individual agency. By acknowledging different forms of suffering and responsibility, feminism can foster solidarity and drive more meaningful change.

Conclusion:

While the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023, represents a significant step forward in ensuring gender equity, the feminist discourse must evolve to accommodate the complexities of gendered power dynamics both at the structural and interpersonal levels. A more inclusive, compassionate, and context-sensitive feminism will be essential to bridge the gaps in current debates, ensuring that gender equity does not just become a political talking point but a lived reality for all women across different strata of society.

Link to Previous Year Questions:

This question draws upon themes related to women’s rights, gender equity, and social reform, which have been frequently addressed in previous UPSC questions. For example:

  1. 2019 Mains GS-II Paper – “Discuss the challenges faced by women in India in achieving gender equality and suggest measures to overcome them.”
  2. 2021 Mains GS-I Paper – “Examine the impact of patriarchy on social structures in India and its implications for gender justice.”
  3. 2018 Mains GS-II Paper – “To what extent do women’s political participation and representation contribute to gender equity in India?”

Introduction

Indoor air pollution (IAP) is a growing concern in urban India, where people spend 70-90% of their time indoors. While outdoor pollution receives significant attention, IAP—caused by cooking fuels, building materials, and poor ventilation—poses severe health risks, including respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer. Sustainable urban design and policy interventions are crucial to mitigate this silent crisis.

Key Sources of Indoor Air Pollution

  1. Household Activities:
    • Use of solid fuels (chulhas in rural areas), incense sticks, mosquito coils, and chemical cleaners.
    • Smoking and combustion-based cooking (even LPG emits PM2.5).
  2. Building Materials & Furnishings:
    • Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from paints, adhesives, and synthetic furniture.
    • Mold growth due to dampness and poor ventilation.
  3. Outdoor Air Infiltration:
    • In urban areas, vehicular and industrial pollutants seep indoors due to inadequate insulation.

Health Impacts

  • Short-term: Eye irritation, headaches, dizziness (often mistaken for viral infections).
  • Long-term: Chronic respiratory diseases (asthma, COPD), heart disease, and lung cancer (WHO links IAP to 1.6 million annual deaths in India).

Sustainable Urban Design Solutions

  1. Ventilation & Natural Light:
    • Skylights, cross-ventilation designs, and open windows to reduce CO₂ buildup.
    • Use of indoor plants (e.g., snake plants, aloe vera) for air purification.
  2. Green Building Standards:
    • Adoption of GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) and LEED certifications to minimize VOC emissions.
    • Retrofit old buildings with HEPA filters and energy-efficient HVAC systems.
  3. Policy Interventions:
    • National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) should include IAP monitoring in urban homes.
    • Incentivize clean cooking fuels (Ujjwala Scheme expansion) and low-VOC construction materials.
    • Public awareness campaigns on IAQ (Indoor Air Quality) standards, similar to the Swachh Bharat Mission.

Case Study: Post-COVID Design Shifts

Hospitals and offices are increasingly adopting air purifiers, UV-C sterilization, and touchless fixtures to reduce pathogen spread—a model for residential spaces.

Conclusion

Indoor air pollution demands urgent attention as urbanization intensifies. Integrating green architecture, stricter material regulations, and public health policies can ensure healthier indoor environments. A holistic approach—combining technology, design, and governance—is key to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being).

Connecting to UPSC Syllabus & Previous Year Questions

Relevant Syllabus Topics:

  • GS III – Environment: Air pollution, health hazards, sustainable urban planning.
  • GS I – Society: Urbanization and associated issues, public health.
  • GS II – Governance: Policy measures for pollution control, Swachh Bharat Mission, National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

Previous Year Questions:

  • 2023: “Discuss the impact of urban air pollution on public health and suggest measures to mitigate it.”
  • 2022: “Examine the role of green buildings in promoting sustainable urban development in India.”
  • 2021: “How does indoor air pollution affect vulnerable groups in India? What policy interventions are needed?”

Introduction

The Tamil Nadu State Planning Commission (SPC) recently conducted a study on migrant workers in Chennai, revealing alarming conditions—long working hours, lack of formal contracts, poor living standards, and minimal social security. Despite marginally higher incomes compared to the poverty line, these workers face systemic exploitation. This underscores the urgent need for policy interventions to safeguard migrant labor rights, a critical yet often neglected segment of India’s workforce.

Body

Key Findings of the Study:

  1. Exploitative Working Conditions:
    • 53% work beyond 8 hours daily, with construction laborers working up to 10 hours and service-sector workers up to 12 hours.
    • 84% lack written contracts, depriving them of job security and legal recourse.
    • No social security benefits like PF, health insurance, or paid leave.
  2. Substandard Living Conditions:
    • 80% live in kutcha/semi-pucca houses with poor amenities.
    • 15% of income spent on rent, despite inadequate housing.
    • Limited access to toilets, forcing reliance on shared facilities.
  3. Economic Vulnerability:
    • Average monthly income: ₹15,902, barely above the poverty line (₹14,556 for a family of four).
    • Construction workers earn the most (₹18,696), while manufacturing workers earn the least (₹14,534).
    • Remittances: 65% send less than ₹5,000/month home, reflecting low disposable income.

Reasons for Migration:

  • Push Factors: Lack of opportunities in hometowns.
  • Pull Factors: Better wages, quality of life, and ability to repay debts or invest in assets.

Challenges:

  • Informalization of labor leading to exploitation.
  • Weak enforcement of labor laws (e.g., Minimum Wages Act, 1948; Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979).
  • Exclusion from welfare schemes due to lack of documentation.

Way Forward

  1. Legal & Policy Reforms:
    • Strengthen implementation of the Labour Codes (2020) to ensure written contracts and overtime pay.
    • Expand One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC) to ensure food security.
  2. Social Security Measures:
    • Universalize health insurance under Ayushman Bharat for migrant workers.
    • Include migrants in Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan (PMSYM) for pensions.
  3. Improving Living Conditions:
    • Affordable rental housing under PM Awas Yojana-Urban.
    • Mobile health clinics and sanitation facilities at worksites.
  4. Skill Development & Financial Inclusion:
    • Skill mapping and portable certification under Skill India Mission.
    • Promote digital banking to ease remittances and savings.

 

Conclusion

The TN SPC study exposes the harsh realities of migrant workers, who contribute significantly to urban economies yet remain marginalized. Addressing their plight requires a mix of stringent labor reforms, inclusive welfare schemes, and collaborative efforts between states. As India moves toward a $5 trillion economy, ensuring dignity and rights for migrant laborers must be a priority.

Previous Year Link:

  • UPSC 2021 (GS-1): “Discuss the challenges and opportunities of internal migration in India.”
  • UPSC 2019 (GS-2): *”Examine the role of the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 in protecting migrant laborers.”*

Introduction:

India’s population has officially reached 146.39 crore, overtaking China to become the world’s most populous country, according to the UNFPA’s State of World Population 2025. However, India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) has now declined to 1.9, below the replacement level of 2.1, as per the Sample Registration System (SRS) 2021 by the Registrar General of India. While this demographic transition presents opportunities, it also poses serious policy and socioeconomic challenges.

Body:

  1. Understanding the Demographic Shift:
  • Population Peak Projection: India’s population is expected to peak at 170 crore around 2065, before starting to decline.
  • Below Replacement Fertility: The TFR of 1.9 indicates a sustained fall in birth rates, particularly in urban and southern Indian states.
  • Census Delay: The decadal Census, delayed since 2021, is now expected to be completed by March 2027, leaving a critical data gap for planning.
  1. Implications of Falling Fertility Amid Population Boom:
  1. Demographic Dividend Window Narrowing:
    • India still has a large youth population (~66% below 35 years), but the declining TFR signals a shrinking working-age base in coming decades.
    • This window of opportunity may close by 2040–45, demanding urgent human capital investment.
  2. Regional and Urban Imbalances:
    • Southern states like Kerala (TFR ~1.8) are aging faster than states like Bihar (TFR ~2.9), leading to inter-state demographic divergence.
    • Urban fertility is already well below replacement, intensifying the aging process in cities.
  3. Pressure on Health and Pension Systems:
    • Aging population implies future burden on elder care, public healthcare, and pension infrastructure.
    • Dependency ratio will rise, reversing the economic benefits of a young workforce.
  4. Migration Challenges:
    • Workforce shortages in low-fertility regions could spur internal migration, leading to socio-political frictions.

Way Forward:

  • Conduct the Census by 2027 without further delay to enable data-driven policymaking.
  • Reform Social Security Architecture: Develop a robust pension and elder-care system, including long-term care insurance.
  • Invest in Human Capital: Focus on education, health, and skill development to maximize the demographic dividend.
  • Balanced Population Policy: Shift from coercive population control to reproductive health and family planning services, especially in high-fertility states.
  • Urban Planning for Aging Cities: Design age-friendly infrastructure and promote inclusive housing, healthcare, and transport systems.

Conclusion:

India stands at a demographic crossroads. While the fall in TFR signals socio-economic development and women’s empowerment, it also warrants a calibrated long-term strategy. A comprehensive and inclusive policy approach is crucial to convert demographic transition into a sustainable development opportunity.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper I – Salient features of Indian Society, Population and associated issues
  • GS Paper II – Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors

Previous Years’ Questions Linkage:

  • 2023 GS I: “The population growth in India has been a source of concern. How far the declining fertility rate will influence the future population scenario in India?”
  • 2021 GS II: “Discuss the challenges posed by demographic transition in India and how it can be turned into an opportunity.”

Introduction:

Mumbai, India’s financial capital, accommodates over 20 million people and records nearly 80 lakh daily commuters on its suburban railway system (Source: Ministry of Railways, 2024). The tragic Mumbra train incident (2024), which resulted in four deaths, brings to the forefront the critical and persistent issue of urban transportation infrastructure and commuter safety. With footboard travel, stampedes, and accidents becoming recurrent, the incident reflects the urban planning crisis confronting India’s growing metropolises.

Body:

  1. Urban Transport Challenges in Mumbai:
  1. Overburdened Rail Infrastructure:
    • The Mumbai suburban railway is one of the busiest commuter rail systems in the world, yet it continues to operate with minimal modernization.
    • Three main corridors (Central, Western, Harbour) see regular overcrowding with 15–16 people per sq. metre during peak hours (Mumbai Rail Vikas Corporation, 2023).
  2. Safety Hazards and Fatalities:
    • Over 2,500 rail-related deaths were reported in Mumbai in 2022, primarily due to track crossing, footboard travel, and stampedes.
    • The 2017 Elphinstone bridge stampede and 2024 Mumbra accident underline the cost of inadequate infrastructure.
  3. Inequitable Transport Access:
    • The Mumbai Metro, though a step forward, remains inaccessible to lower-income groups due to higher fares.
    • Insufficient bus connectivity and unaffordable ride-hailing services marginalize the urban poor.
  4. Urban Sprawl and Inefficient Planning:
    • Mumbai’s north-south urban design causes long commuter journeys from peripheral areas to commercial hubs like Nariman Point and Bandra-Kurla Complex.

Way Forward:

  1. Modernize Suburban Railways:
    • Implement automatic sliding doors and coach vestibules to reduce fatalities.
    • Introduce AI-based crowd management and real-time train tracking apps for better scheduling and safety.
  2. Diversify Public Transport Options:
    • Boost BEST bus fleet and services on shorter routes.
    • Expand affordable metro passes for lower-income groups.
  3. Develop Multi-Modal Integration:
    • Integrate Metro, buses, local trains, ferries under a Unified Transport Authority.
    • Promote smart mobility cards for seamless transit.
  4. Urban Redesign and Decentralization:
    • Create economic sub-centres across the city to reduce radial commuting.
    • Promote ferry transport as a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative along Mumbai’s coast.
  5. Implement National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) 2014 Goals:
    • Focus on people-centric mobility, non-motorized transport, and safety-first design.

Conclusion:

Mumbai’s transportation woes reflect not just the need for infrastructure upgrades but also the urgent requirement to rethink urban mobility in India. Ensuring dignified, safe, and inclusive travel for all citizens must be central to the Smart Cities Mission and Amrit Bharat Station Scheme. As urbanization accelerates, cities must evolve from survival mode to sustainability and resilience.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper I – Urbanization, problems and remedies
  • GS Paper II – Government schemes and infrastructure
  • GS Paper III – Inclusive development, environmental sustainability

Previous Years’ Question Linkages:

  • 2022 GS I: “Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail.”
  • 2021 GS I: “Discuss the problems of urban flooding in India. Give relevant examples.”
  • 2020 GS II: “Affordable housing in urban areas is the need of the hour.” Discuss.

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