Introduction

  • The Income Tax (No. 2) Bill, 2025, passed by the Lok Sabha in August 2025, aims to replace the Income Tax Act, 1961 by simplifying, rationalising, and reducing its size from 5.12 lakh words to 2.59 lakh words.
  • While the Bill focuses on efficiency and clarity — reducing chapters from 47 to 23 and sections from 819 to 536 — it has also expanded powers of income tax officials during search operations, raising constitutional concerns over privacy.
  • This development is significant in the backdrop of Supreme Court’s Puttaswamy judgment (2017), which upheld the Right to Privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21.

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Key Features of the Revised Income Tax Bill, 2025

  • Structural Simplification:
    • Chapters reduced from 47 → 23, Sections from 819 → 536.
    • More user-friendly presentation with 57 tables (earlier 18) and 46 formulae (earlier 6).
  • Rationalisation:
    • Language and formatting aimed at reducing litigation and increasing taxpayer clarity.
  • Enhanced Search Powers:
    • Officials can require any person in possession of electronic records to provide access codes/passwords.
    • Permission to override access codes if not provided.
    • Powers extend to accessing personal emails, social media accounts, WhatsApp communications, etc.

Arguments in Favour (Government & Select Committee View)

  • Digital Evidence Relevance: In 2023–24, CBDT data shows over 80% of tax evasion cases involved digital communication/e-records.
  • Preventing Evasion: Access to encrypted or locked data may uncover benami transactions, hawala networks, and foreign asset concealment.
  • Clarity in Law: The Select Committee justified provisions as necessary to tackle modern tax evasion methods involving sophisticated digital tools.

Concerns Raised (Opposition & Critics)

  • Right to Privacy: Critics argue provisions are overbroad, risking arbitrary searches and breaches of personal liberty.
  • Potential Misuse: Could be weaponised against political opponents or dissenters.
  • Judicial Precedent Ignored: Puttaswamy case (2017) mandates proportionality, legality, and necessity in any restriction of privacy rights.
  • Existing Powers Adequate: The Income Tax Act, 1961 already provides sufficient authority for search and seizure with due process.

Balancing Tax Enforcement with Privacy

  • Proportionality Test: Any law impacting privacy must meet necessity, legitimacy, and least restrictive means criteria.
  • Judicial Oversight: Search powers could be exercised with prior sanction from higher judicial or quasi-judicial authorities.
  • Technology Safeguards: Use of hashing & digital audit trails to prevent tampering and ensure accountability.

Way Forward

  • Codify Privacy Safeguards: Explicit clauses ensuring data protection during search operations.
  • Independent Oversight Body: Similar to the UK’s Independent Office for Police Conduct for tax-related intrusions.
  • Periodic Parliamentary Review: Annual reporting of search/seizure actions to Parliamentary Committees.
  • Public Awareness & Digital Literacy: Educating taxpayers about their rights during search operations.

Conclusion

The Income Tax Bill, 2025 is a significant reform towards simplifying India’s tax laws and aligning them with the digital economy. However, excessive powers without adequate checks may undermine constitutional rights. The challenge for policymakers is to balance effective tax enforcement with the protection of individual privacy, ensuring transparency, proportionality, and accountability in the exercise of state power.

Link with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II: Governance, Constitution — Right to Privacy, Fundamental Rights, Executive accountability
  • GS Paper III: Internal Security — Cyber governance, data privacy, economic offences

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

  • GS II, 2021: “Discuss the right to privacy in the context of the governance of personal data in cyberspace.”
  • GS III, 2020: “Explain the importance of digital evidence in investigation of economic offences.”
  • GS II, 2017: “Examine the scope of Right to Privacy in India with reference to the Supreme Court judgment.”

Introduction

The Presidential Reference under Article 143 of the Indian Constitution empowers the President to seek the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion on questions of law or fact of public importance. Recently, a Presidential Reference sought clarity on whether the judiciary can impose timelines for Governors and the President to act on State Bills. However, Tamil Nadu and Kerala have contested this reference, terming it “misleading”, since the matter was already settled by the apex court in April 2024 in the Tamil Nadu Governor case.

Body

  • Judicial Finality and Article 143:
    • The Supreme Court judgment in April 2024 (Tamil Nadu Governor case) held that Governors must act within a reasonable time in dealing with State Bills under Articles 200 and 201.
    • Kerala and Tamil Nadu argue that once the court has settled the law, Article 143 cannot be used to seek a review-like opinion, violating the doctrine of judicial finality.
  • Misuse of Presidential Reference:
    • Kerala and Tamil Nadu assert that the Presidential Reference is a “backdoor appeal” rather than a genuine doubt about unsettled law.
    • As per judicial precedent (Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal Reference, 1993), only unsettled questions of law can be referred to the court under Article 143.
  • Principle of Separation of Powers:
    • The act of referring an already adjudicated issue may blur the lines between the judiciary and executive, potentially undermining the independence and finality of judicial decisions.
    • The Union’s bypassing of review/curative petitions to seek another opinion may undermine the review mechanism laid out in Articles 137 and 145.
  • Constitutional Morality and Federalism:
    • The reference is seen by States as an assault on cooperative federalism, especially when Governors delay or withhold Bills passed by elected State legislatures.
    • Article 144 mandates that the President and all authorities act in aid of the Supreme Court, implying that settled judgments must be followed, not re-litigated indirectly.
  • Article 141 and Binding Nature of Judgments:
    • The April 2024 judgment is binding on all authorities under Article 141. The fact that the Union has not filed a review petition implies acceptance of the ruling.
    • Collateral attempts to challenge a settled judgment through a reference could weaken respect for judicial authority.

Way Forward

  • Clarify the Limits of Article 143: The Supreme Court must lay down clear guidelines on when and how Article 143 can be invoked to prevent executive overreach.
  • Reinforce Judicial Finality: Upholding the principle that once decided, legal questions cannot be reopened without invoking formal review mechanisms.
  • Ensure Time-bound Assent Mechanism: Amendments or guidelines should be considered to prescribe reasonable timelines for Governors and the President to act on Bills, ensuring legislative efficiency.

Conclusion

The recent Presidential Reference concerning State Bills challenges not only the principle of judicial finality but also the spirit of constitutional federalism. The Supreme Court must guard against becoming a tool for executive review of its own judgments, preserving the sanctity of Articles 141 and 144. Strengthening constitutional morality, ensuring Governor accountability, and upholding judicial supremacy are vital for a vibrant democratic polity.

Link with UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II – Polity and Governance
    • Structure, organization, and functioning of the Executive and Judiciary
    • Separation of powers
    • Role of Governors
    • Functions of the President, Article 143

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2023: Discuss the role of the Governor in the context of the functioning of State Legislatures in India. (GS II)
  • 2020: Judicial legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. In this context justify the entering of courts into the legislative domain.
  • 2015: Resorting to Ordinance route has always raised concern on the violation of the spirit of separation of powers. Critically examine.

Sources:

  • Constitution of India – Articles 143, 141, 144, 200, 201
  • Supreme Court Judgment: State of Tamil Nadu v. Union of India, April 8, 2024
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB)
  • The Hindu, July 2025
  • Ministry of Law and Justice Reports

Introduction

The Chola dynasty, especially under rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, left behind a legacy that goes beyond monumental temples. Their contributions in the areas of good governance, grassroots democracy, water management, and urban infrastructure are remarkably relevant to present-day India. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s 2025 address at Gangaikonda Cholapuram reiterated this relevance, linking ancient India’s administrative prowess with modern governance goals.

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  1. Administrative and Democratic Legacy
  • The Chola empire had a well-structured bureaucracy and a decentralised governance model through local self-governing bodies like ‘ur’, ‘sabha’, and ‘nadu’.
  • Inscriptions such as the Uttaramerur records provide evidence of electoral processes, fixed tenures, qualifications, and disqualifications for village committee members — a prototype of modern panchayati raj.
  • In contrast, even after three decades of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, many urban local bodies in India lack elected representatives, weakening democratic decentralisation.
  1. Water Management and Resource Conservation
  • Cholas constructed an elaborate network of tanks, canals, and embankments, particularly in the Cauvery delta, for flood control and irrigation.
  • Inscriptions mention tank committees (Eri-variyam) that managed community water usage, showing participatory planning.
  • Today, regions like Cauvery delta face floods and water wastage due to the absence of modernised water harvesting, making Chola-era practices a model for resilience in a changing climate.
  1. Resilient Infrastructure and Architecture
  • Temples like Brihadisvara and Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built over 1,000 years ago, still stand despite seismic activity in the region.
  • The earthquake-resistant architectural design using granite and interlocking stone methods is being studied by archaeologists and civil engineers for modern urban infrastructure.
  • This contrasts with recent civic infrastructure collapses in cities, raising questions about quality and sustainability.
  1. Maritime Trade and Cultural Expansion
  • Rajendra Chola’s maritime expedition to Southeast Asia, commemorated in 2025, illustrates ancient India’s blue economy and naval strength.
  • This supports India’s Sagarmala Project and Act East Policy, underscoring the importance of historical maritime ties and regional influence.

Way Forward

  • Incorporate Chola-era administrative models in revamping panchayati raj systems, ensuring elections, transparency, and community participation.
  • Study ancient water systems for modern application in climate-resilient agriculture and urban flooding mitigation.
  • Encourage structural engineering research on temple design to create earthquake-resilient buildings in India’s seismic zones.
  • Integrate historical consciousness into policy, not only through symbolism (statues), but through governance reforms inspired by historical best practices.

Conclusion

The Chola legacy is not just a tale of monumental temples and naval conquests; it is a blueprint for responsive governance, resilient infrastructure, and sustainable resource management. Modern India must revive and adapt these practices, aligning them with technological advancements and 21st-century challenges, to achieve the vision of ‘Viksit Bharat’ by 2047.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper I – Indian Heritage and Culture: Art, architecture, and cultural contributions of ancient Indian dynasties.
  • GS Paper II – Governance: Local self-government, devolution of powers, participatory governance, and reforms in service delivery.
  • GS Paper III – Disaster Management: Urban infrastructure resilience and water resource management.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2023 (GS I): The political and cultural achievements of the Cholas are well-known, but their administrative innovations remain underappreciated. Comment.
  • 2021 (GS II): Assess the working of local self-government in the context of the 73rd and 74th Amendments.
  • 2016 (GS III): Discuss the role of local bodies in disaster preparedness with reference to recent urban flooding incidents.

Sources:

  • Prime Minister’s Address at Aadi Thiruvathirai Festival, July 2025
  • ASI Reports on Chola Temples, 2024
  • Ministry of Jal Shakti Reports, 2023
  • Ministry of Panchayati Raj Dashboard, 2024
  • ICHR Publications on Chola Administrative Inscriptions
  • Earthquake Zonation Map by Ministry of Earth Sciences, 2023

Introduction

India’s judiciary, the guardian of constitutional rights and rule of law, is battling a crisis of massive pendency and delay. As of March 2025, over 5 crore cases are pending — with 4.6 crore in district courts, 63.3 lakh in High Courts, and 86,700 in the Supreme Court (Department of Justice, Government of India). President Droupadi Murmu aptly described this public frustration as the “black coat syndrome”. Delay in disposal of cases erodes citizen confidence, restricts economic growth, and violates the right to speedy justice under Article 21.

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  1. Current Status of Pendency and Disparities
  • District courts, where most citizens seek justice, are the worst affected: only 38.7% of civil cases are resolved within a year; 20% take more than 5 years.
  • Criminal cases move faster than civil ones: 70.6% disposed within a year in district courts.
  • Despite handling the highest volume, district courts have only 18 judges per 10 lakh people, compared to 50 recommended by the 1987 Law Commission.
  1. Key Reasons Behind Judicial Delays
  • Vacant posts: Of the 26,927 sanctioned judges, 5,665 positions remain unfilled, keeping the judiciary at 79% operational capacity.
  • Inadequate infrastructure: Poor digital access, lack of courtrooms, and insufficient support staff.
  • Procedural inefficiencies: Frequent adjournments, lack of case scheduling, and absence of time-bound trial frameworks.
  • Complexity in civil matters: Land/property and family disputes involve lengthy evidence and multiple parties.
  1. Impacts of Judicial Delay
  • Denial of justice to common citizens, especially in civil disputes like inheritance, land, or maintenance.
  • Hindrance to economic development: Commercial litigation delays discourage investment.
  • Overburdening of the higher judiciary, due to cascading appeals from lower courts.
  1. Role of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
  • ADR mechanisms like Lok Adalats, mediation, and arbitration offer quick, cost-effective justice.
  • Between 2021 and March 2025, National Lok Adalats resolved 27.5 crore cases, including 22.21 crore pre-litigation and 5.34 crore court cases (NALSA, 2025).
  • ADR strengthens community-based justice and reduces formal court burden.

Way Forward

  • Increase judge strength: Raise sanctioned posts to meet Law Commission benchmarks; speed up judicial appointments.
  • Digitisation and court management: Expand e-Courts project with AI-enabled case scheduling and monitoring.
  • Time-bound adjudication: Legislate statutory timelines for civil trials like those under the Commercial Courts Act.
  • Strengthen ADR ecosystem: Institutionalise pre-litigation mediation and expand Lok Adalats in rural areas.
  • Judicial accountability: Introduce performance audits and improve coordination between judiciary and executive.

Conclusion

India’s overburdened judiciary needs urgent and systemic reform to uphold the constitutional promise of justice. Strengthening lower courts, modernising judicial processes, and investing in alternative mechanisms like Lok Adalats are essential to reverse the crisis. Without time-bound and affordable justice, the democratic fabric risks weakening, and the trust of citizens in legal institutions could erode irreversibly.

Link to UPSC Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II – Governance, Constitution, Polity
    • Structure and functioning of judiciary
    • Dispute redressal mechanisms and institutions
    • Government policies and interventions for transparency and accountability

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2023 (GS II): Judicial pendency is a major challenge to India’s rule of law. Discuss the structural reasons and reforms required.
  • 2020 (GS II): What are the challenges to judicial federalism in India? How can they be addressed?
  • 2019 (GS II): Discuss the significance of the role of the National Legal Services Authority in achieving ‘access to justice for all’.

Sources:

  • Department of Justice, Government of India, 2025
  • National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), 2025
  • National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) Reports, 2024–25
  • Law Commission of India, 120th Report (1987)
  • President Droupadi Murmu’s Address, 2024

Introduction

The Maharashtra Legislature recently passed the Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill, 2024, aimed at countering the threat of ‘urban Naxalism’. While the government claims the Bill addresses gaps in existing laws, civil society and opposition leaders have raised serious concerns regarding overreach, ambiguity, and potential misuse. This development reflects the broader debate in Indian governance — balancing security imperatives with fundamental rights.

Body

  1. Key Provisions of the Bill
  • Seeks to curb Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) and its alleged urban networks by declaring organisations as ‘illegal’.
  • Section 2(f) criminalises speech, gestures, or visual symbols that merely ‘cause concern’ or ‘tend to interfere’ with public order — a provision considered overly broad.
  • Empowers the State to ban organisations indefinitely without judicial oversight.
  • Provides blanket immunity to state officials acting in “good faith”.
  • Bars lower court jurisdiction, limiting access to effective judicial remedies.
  1. Government’s Rationale
  • Maharashtra claims the State is home to over 60 urban Naxal organisations, offering logistical and ideological support to underground Maoist groups.
  • Other states like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana have similar Public Security Acts to combat LWE.
  • Government asserts that peaceful protests and journalism will not fall under the Bill, but lacks explicit safeguards in the law itself.
  1. Criticisms and Concerns
  • Lack of transparency: The list of banned organisations has not been made public.
  • Suppression of dissent: Vague definitions may criminalise legitimate activism, student movements, and farmers’ groups.
  • Violation of Article 19: Freedom of speech, expression, and association are at risk due to overly broad interpretations of what may ‘cause concern’.
  • Due process concerns: Absence of clear judicial safeguards and potential for ideologically motivated misuse.
  • Political timing: Critics argue the Bill targets civil rights groups and opposition voices, especially post-2024 general elections.
  1. Legal and Federal Implications
  • Overlaps with Unlawful Activities Prevention Act (UAPA), raising questions of legislative duplication.
  • Creates potential conflict with judicial review principles under Articles 14, 19, and 21 of the Constitution.
  • Promotes centralised policing of ideology, impacting India’s federal fabric and democratic space.

Way Forward

  • Judicial Review: The Bill should undergo constitutional scrutiny by the courts to test its compliance with fundamental rights.
  • Define clear safeguards: Ensure legal clarity, procedural fairness, and independent oversight bodies to prevent misuse.
  • Parliamentary scrutiny: A Model Law on Public Security may be considered to harmonise security measures with constitutional rights across states.
  • Transparency: Public disclosure of banned organisations and open mechanisms for redressal.
  • Promote democratic policing: Law enforcement must differentiate between violent extremism and peaceful dissent.

Conclusion

The Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill seeks to address real security concerns, but risks undermining constitutional freedoms if left unchecked. Security and liberty are not mutually exclusive — a robust democratic state must craft laws that are effective, targeted, and legally sound. Going forward, the focus must be on proportionality, judicial oversight, and ensuring that laws do not become tools for political repression or ideological control.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II – Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice
    • Structure, organization and functioning of State Legislature and Government
    • Issues and challenges pertaining to federal structure
    • Role of civil society and pressure groups
    • Security and human rights

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2023 (GS II): The role of State governments in internal security has become more prominent in the wake of rising non-state actors. Discuss.
  • 2021 (GS II): While the right to protest is a fundamental right, it is subject to reasonable restrictions. Examine this statement in the context of recent protests.
  • 2020 (GS II): Examine the role of civil society in a democracy in light of rising curbs on NGOs and activists.

Sources:

  • Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Proceedings, July 2025
  • Ministry of Home Affairs, Annual LWE Status Report, 2024
  • The Hindu, July 2025 – Maharashtra Special Public Security Bill Analysis
  • National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 2024
  • Human Rights Law Network (HRLN), 2024 Brief on State Security Legislation

Introduction

India is facing an alarming rise in non-communicable diseases (NCDs), which now account for over 66% of all deaths in the country (Health Ministry, 2024). Rapid urbanisation, sedentary lifestyles, and processed food consumption have contributed to a surge in obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. In response, the Union Health Ministry recently launched a comprehensive strategy focused on labelling sugar, salt, and oil content in commonly consumed foods to foster healthier dietary behaviours.

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  1. Key Provisions of the Initiative
  • Mandatory display of oil and sugar content on popular snacks (e.g., samosa, pizza, burger) in cafeterias, meeting rooms, and government lobbies.
  • Integration of health messages on government stationery (letterheads, notepads) to reinforce behavioural nudges.
  • Aim: Curb consumption of HFSS (High Fat, Sugar, and Salt) foods through constant visual and psychological cues.
  1. Scientific Rationale and Standards
  • As per ICMR-NIN’s Dietary Guidelines (2024):
    • HFSS foods defined as:
      • 10% energy from sugar
      • 15% energy from added fat/oil
      • 625 mg salt per 100g food
  • Nutrient values are calculated via lab analysis or from the Indian Food Composition Tables.
  • Backed by WHO guidelines recommending less than 25g added sugar, 65g total fat, and 5g salt per day for adults.
  1. Health Risks of HFSS Foods
  • Increased risk of type-2 diabetes, hypertension, metabolic disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.
  • HFSS foods are often nutrient-poor and calorie-dense, leading to hidden hunger (micronutrient deficiency) and childhood obesity.
  1. Complementary Recommendations
  • Promote fibre-rich, whole grain-based, and home-cooked meals.
  • Reduce dependence on processed or packaged foods with misleading labels or exaggerated health claims.
  • Awareness about functional foods and fortified snacks, which may still be high in salt/sugar, is also necessary.

Way Forward

  • Front-of-Pack Labelling (FOPL): Expedite implementation of warning labels, colour coding, or traffic-light systems on packaged foods.
  • Nutritional Literacy in Schools: Integrate dietary awareness into curricula from early stages.
  • Incentivise healthy choices: Provide GST waivers on millets, fruits, or healthy snacks.
  • Monitoring & Regulation: FSSAI must regularly update and enforce compliance with HFSS thresholds in processed food industries.
  • Mass campaigns: Leverage platforms like MyGov and social media to create a ‘movement’ for healthy eating habits.

Conclusion

India’s food labelling and public awareness strategy represents a low-cost, high-impact intervention in the fight against NCDs. By bringing sugar, salt, and oil into the public consciousness, the government is using a behavioural science approach to tackle a growing health epidemic. However, multi-sectoral collaboration, regulatory vigilance, and sustained public engagement are essential to transform this initiative from a symbolic gesture to a systemic shift toward healthier India.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • GS II – 2019: “Despite the implementation of various programmes for eradication of malnutrition, the level of malnutrition is still alarming in India. Discuss the measures to be adopted.”
  • GS III – 2023: “What are the key steps taken by the government to tackle the rising burden of non-communicable diseases in India?”
  • GS II – 2018: “Examine the role of social and behavioural change communication in addressing public health challenges.”

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II:
    • Issues relating to Health
    • Government Policies and Interventions for vulnerable sections
  • GS Paper III:
    • Awareness in the fields of Health and Nutrition
    • Science and Technology in everyday life
    • Food Processing and Public Distribution

Sources Used:

  • Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2024)
  • ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) – Dietary Guidelines 2024
  • WHO Global Guidelines on Salt and Sugar
  • The Hindu article by Bindu Shajan Perappadan (2025)

Introduction

India’s linguistic diversity is both a source of cultural richness and a site of contestation. The medium of instruction in schools, particularly the tension between English and regional languages, has emerged as a key debate in education policy. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, with its emphasis on the three-language formula and mother-tongue instruction, has reignited concerns about constitutional rights, social mobility, and educational equity.

Body

  1. Constitutional and Judicial Dimensions
  • Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of expression, which includes the right to receive education in a language of choice.
  • The Supreme Court’s 2014 verdict invalidating the Karnataka government’s order mandating Kannada as the medium till Class IV emphasized the right to choose the medium of instruction.
  • Private educational institutions also have the constitutional protection to function based on market demand and autonomy.
  1. Pedagogical Argument for Mother Tongue
  • Studies by UNESCO and NCERT show that children learn better in their mother tongue in early years due to cognitive familiarity.
  • However, defining “mother tongue” in multilingual households (especially urban or inter-state families) remains ambiguous.
  1. English as a Tool for Empowerment
  • English proficiency boosts employability in global services like IT, finance, and education.
  • Subaltern and marginalized communities—Dalits, Adivasis, and OBCs—increasingly view English as a pathway for social mobility and liberation from local elite dominance.
  • In 2023, ASER Report data showed a 44% increase in enrollment in private English-medium schools since 2010, indicating strong aspirational demand.
  1. Risks of Imposing a Single Language
  • Imposing one language (regional or national) as the exclusive medium could:
    • Widen social inequalities by excluding underprivileged groups from English access.
    • Strengthen linguistic chauvinism in multilingual regions.
    • Undermine the pluralistic ethos of Indian democracy.

Way Forward

  • Multilingual Flexibility: Encourage regional languages in early grades with progressive inclusion of English as a parallel medium.
  • Strengthen Public English Medium Options: Invest in government English-medium schools to prevent the elite capture of private schooling.
  • Parental Choice as a Right: State policy must respect aspirations and provide multiple language options in curriculum.
  • Contextual Implementation of NEP: The three-language formula should be made flexible, not compulsory, keeping local realities in mind.

Conclusion

Any language policy in education must be guided by the principles of inclusion, equality, and autonomy. While the mother tongue aids foundational learning, English remains a bridge to opportunity and mobility in a globalized world. The challenge is not in choosing one over the other, but in ensuring that the most disadvantaged have access to both, thus fulfilling the true objective of equitable and quality education for all.

Syllabus Link (GS Paper II):

  • Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.
  • Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Education.
  • Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States in the context of education policy.

Previous Year Linkage:

  • UPSC GS II 2020: “National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (Education). Critically examine the statement.”
  • UPSC GS II 2016: “Examine the role of language in promoting education and achieving inclusive development.”

Sources:

  • National Education Policy 2020 – Ministry of Education
  • Supreme Court Judgment: State of Karnataka vs. Associated Management of Primary and Secondary Schools (2014)
  • ASER Report 2023
  • NCERT Position Paper on Language and Education
  • IGNOU MPA-016: Public Policy

Introduction

India’s rapid urbanization and industrial expansion have intensified the demand on its public infrastructure, often beyond design capacity. However, recurring incidents—such as the Vadodara bridge collapse (July 2025), Morbi suspension bridge disaster (2022), and Ghatkopar hoarding collapse (2024)—expose deep structural and governance failures. These are not mere accidents but reflect systemic neglect, poor asset management, and lack of accountability in infrastructure governance.

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Major Institutional and Structural Deficiencies

  • Ageing and Overburdened Infrastructure: Most Indian bridges, flyovers, and civic structures were designed decades ago. According to a 2019 report by the Indian Roads Congress, more than 1.5 lakh bridges in India are over 50 years old. In cities like Vadodara and Pune, rapid population growth has overwhelmed ageing assets without adequate upgrades.
  • Inadequate Maintenance and Asset Management: Government audits, including by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), have repeatedly highlighted that urban local bodies lack capacity and budget to carry out preventive maintenance. Infrastructure upkeep often takes a backseat to new construction, even under schemes like the Smart Cities Mission and AMRUT.
  • Lack of Institutional Accountability: Investigation reports into collapses are often not made public, and rarely lead to penal action or systemic reform. In the Morbi bridge case, accountability was diluted due to overlapping responsibilities between private operators and municipal authorities.
  • Fragmented Governance Mechanisms: There is a lack of coordination between urban development authorities, municipal bodies, and state agencies, resulting in weak regulation, inspection, and certification. No unified database exists for real-time monitoring of critical assets.
  • Reactive Instead of Preventive Measures: Probes are often initiated post-disaster, rather than proactive audits and retrofitting. Moreover, audits are usually restricted to similar infrastructure, ignoring systemic interconnectedness and urban ecosystem stress.

Way Forward

  • Institutionalize Regular Infrastructure Audits: All critical infrastructure—bridges, flyovers, public buildings—should undergo mandatory structural audits every 5 years, as per IRC and CPWD guidelines, especially in urban centers with 10 lakh+ population.
  • Leverage Digital Tools for Monitoring: Use GIS-based asset tagging, AI-driven stress detection, and drone surveillance to assess real-time health of infrastructure. The Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs) under Smart Cities can be expanded for infrastructure monitoring.
  • Reform Funding Mechanisms: The Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (UIDF) and AMRUT 2.0 must earmark a specific share for rehabilitation, maintenance, and capacity building in municipal engineering departments.
  • Transparent Public Disclosure and Accountability: Findings of failure investigations must be published in the public domain within a set timeframe. An independent statutory infrastructure safety authority should be mandated to probe such collapses and recommend actions.

Conclusion

India’s infrastructure crisis is not about technology but governance. To avoid preventable tragedies, the focus must shift from short-term asset creation to long-term resilience, proactive maintenance, and institutional transparency. A national culture of preventive infrastructure governance is essential to protect both lives and public trust.

Linked Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Statutory Bodies
  • GS Paper III: Infrastructure – Urbanization, Investment Models, Disaster Management

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • GS II (2019): “Do you think the institutions of local governance have helped in deepening democracy in India? Justify your answer.”
  • GS III (2021): “What are the salient features of the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP)? How does it contribute to infrastructure development?”
  • GS III (2022): “Explain the measures suggested for the maintenance and resilience of urban infrastructure in India.”

Sources:

  • Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 2019
  • Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs – UIDF, AMRUT 2.0 Guidelines (2023)
  • CAG Audit Reports on Urban Infrastructure (2022)
  • The Hindu, July 2025
  • NDMA Guidelines on Urban Infrastructure Safety

Introduction

Science and Technology (S&T) is a key driver of economic growth, innovation, and societal transformation. In India, State Science and Technology Councils (SSTCs) were established in the 1970s to decentralize scientific governance and foster region-specific innovation. However, a recent NITI Aayog report (2025) recommends a shift from core grant support by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) to project-based funding, sparking debate on the future of decentralized S&T in India.

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Significance of State S&T Councils

  • Localized Innovation: SSTCs help tailor scientific solutions to state-specific issues in agriculture, environment, and public health.
  • Grassroots Science Promotion: These councils promote science popularization, STEM education, and local patent filing.
  • Decentralized Governance: They serve as a bridge between central scientific agencies and state implementation mechanisms.

Current Status and Key Findings (2024–25)

  • Of the ₹300 crore budget of Gujarat’s S&T Council, only ₹1.07 crore came from the Centre; Kerala received no central funding despite a ₹150 crore budget.
  • Between 2016 and 2022, 28 States and 3 UTs were supported by DST; yet, the bulk of scientific output continues to come from centrally funded institutions (CSIR, IISc, IITs).
  • A 17.65% rise in SSTC funding between 2023–24 and 2024–25 reflects growing state investment, yet regional disparities remain a concern.

Implications of Shifting to Project-Based Funding

  • Positive Aspects:
    • Encourages performance-based accountability and output-driven investment.
    • Aligns funding with national priority projects and innovation targets.
  • Negative Consequences:
    • Threatens institutional continuity and capacity-building of SSTCs.
    • States with weaker administrative and R&D ecosystems may struggle to secure funding, worsening regional R&D imbalances.
    • Reduces flexibility for SSTCs to respond to emergent, state-specific scientific needs outside project mandates.

Way Forward

  • Hybrid Funding Model: Maintain a minimum core support for institutional stability while linking additional funds to competitive project performance.
  • Capacity Building: Invest in human capital, digital infrastructure, and technical training at the state level to enhance fund absorption capacity.
  • Encourage State-Centre Collaboration: Facilitate shared research frameworks, with DST acting as a coordinating agency to align national missions with state priorities.
  • Address Regional Disparities: Launch a special funding mechanism (e.g., S&T Equity Grant) for low-performing states to reduce inter-regional gaps.
  • Monitor Impact Metrics: Introduce standardized KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) for SSTCs focusing on patents, innovation diffusion, and local problem-solving.

Conclusion

While NITI Aayog’s push for project-based funding aims to boost efficiency and output, it must be balanced with the need for institutional support and equitable scientific development. A nuanced approach—blending core support with competitive incentives—is essential to make India’s S&T ecosystem inclusive, resilient, and regionally representative.

Linked Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II: Governance – Government Policies and Interventions, Role of NITI Aayog
  • GS Paper III: Science & Technology – Development, Indigenization of Technology, R&D Policies

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • GS III (2020): “What is India’s position in R&D investments globally? What can be done to bridge the gap between academia and industry?”
  • GS II (2018): “NITI Aayog has been established with the aim to achieve cooperative federalism. Discuss its role in enhancing decentralized planning.”
  • GS III (2019): “Scientific research in Indian universities is declining. Do you agree? Suggest measures to improve it.”

Sources:

  • NITI Aayog Report on State S&T Councils (2025)
  • DST Annual Report (2023–24)
  • Union Budget 2024–25 (S&T Allocation)
  • Press Information Bureau (PIB) – S&T Schemes and Updates

Introduction:

India has made substantial progress in achieving near-universal enrollment at the primary level. However, the real challenge lies in ensuring quality education and grade-appropriate learning outcomes. The recently released Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development – Rashtriya Sarvekshan (PARAKH RS), formerly NAS, highlights deep learning deficits, particularly in language and mathematics, across Grades 3, 6, and 9.

Body:

  1. Key Findings of PARAKH RS (2025):
  • Scope and Coverage:
    • Over 21 lakh students from 74,000+ schools across 781 districts were assessed in languages, mathematics, and science/social science.
    • Top performers: Punjab, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Daman & Diu.
  • Foundational Deficits:
    • Only 55% of Grade 3 students could arrange numbers up to 99 correctly.
    • 54% of Grade 6 students could represent numbers using place value structure.
    • Only 31% of Grade 9 students could grasp basic number sets like fractions and rational numbers.
  • Language Skills:
    • 67% of Grade 3 students could guess new word meanings from existing vocabulary.
    • 54% of Grade 9 students could identify the main point in an editorial or report — a serious reading comprehension deficit.
  • Scientific Temper and Inquiry:
    • Only 38% of Grade 6 students could pose basic scientific questions or recognize patterns in nature — an indicator of rote learning rather than conceptual understanding.
  • Civics Awareness:
    • Just 45% of Grade 9 students understood the Constitution and national movement—an alarming gap in civic literacy.
  1. Causes of Learning Deficits:
  • Poor teacher-student ratio and lack of subject-specific teachers.
  • Inadequate focus on foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) in early years.
  • Weak implementation of continuous formative assessments.
  • Overburdened curriculum and rote-based pedagogy.
  • Insufficient teacher training and use of outdated teaching methods.
  • Digital divide and poor learning continuity during COVID-19 years.

Way Forward:

  • Implement NIPUN Bharat effectively: Strengthen foundational skills by Grade 3.
  • Competency-based learning: Align classroom pedagogy with learning outcomes as defined by NCERT and NEP 2020.
  • Robust Teacher Training: Continuous in-service programs and subject-specific training via DIKSHA platform.
  • Localized Curriculum Design: Contextualize learning materials to regional and linguistic needs.
  • Leverage Technology Smartly: Bridge digital gaps through Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA) and PM eVIDYA.
  • Regular Monitoring and Data-Driven Interventions: Use assessments like PARAKH RS not just for ranking, but for targeted remedial action.
  • Parental and Community Engagement: Involve School Management Committees (SMCs) and civil society in tracking learning outcomes.

Conclusion:

PARAKH RS exposes critical gaps in India’s school education system, underlining that universal schooling is not synonymous with universal learning. To truly realize the goals of NEP 2020 and SDG-4, India must shift focus from inputs to outcomes, and from schooling to learning, with urgency, equity, and innovation.

Syllabus Linkage (GS Paper II):

  • Issues relating to development and management of education.
  • Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS II): “National Education Policy 2020 is in line with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (SDG-4) of the UN. Examine the statement.”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS II): “Do government schemes for upskilling the youth fail to cater to the actual demands of the market? Examine.”
  • UPSC Mains 2016 (GS II): “Examine the role of the school education system in achieving inclusive growth in India.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of Education, Govt. of India – PARAKH RS 2025 Report
  • National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
  • NIPUN Bharat Mission (2021)
  • UDISE+ Report 2023–24
  • Press Information Bureau (July 2025)

Introduction:

Language remains a cornerstone of India’s socio-cultural identity and federal polity. The recent debate in Maharashtra over the imposition of Hindi as the third language in State Board primary schools has reignited long-standing tensions between linguistic nationalism and regional identity, especially within the framework of the National Education Policy (NEP), 2020.

Body:

  1. Background of the Debate:
  • On April 16, 2024, Maharashtra’s Education Department issued an order making Hindi mandatory as the third language from Grade 1 to 5.
  • The government justified this move as being in line with NEP 2020 and the State Education Framework 2024.
  1. Resistance to the Policy:
  • Civil society, regional linguistic groups, and academics opposed the move citing:
    • Cultural and linguistic imposition of Hindi.
    • Lack of consultation with Maharashtra’s language committee.
    • Overburdening children with a third language at the primary stage, violating child-centric pedagogy.
  • Critics associated it with a political agenda of “Hindi-Hindu-Hindustan“.
  1. Revised Government Stance:
  • Due to backlash, the policy was revised on June 17, making Hindi optional but with a minimum threshold of 20 students to opt for another Indian language.
  • Still viewed as a backdoor imposition, leading to further dissent.
  1. Political Implications:
  • Triggered regional mobilization around Marathi Asmita (pride).
  • Brought together Uddhav and Raj Thackeray in joint opposition.
  • Exposed fault lines within the ruling Mahayuti coalition, with leaders like Ajit Pawar distancing from the move.
  1. NEP 2020 and the Three-Language Policy:
  • NEP recommends mother tongue/home language as medium of instruction till Grade 5 and encourages flexible multilingualism.
  • However, it does not mandate Hindi, nor prescribes uniformity across States.

Way Forward:

  • Stakeholder Consultation: All decisions on language must be preceded by inclusive dialogue involving parents, teachers, educationists, and linguistic experts.
  • Cultural Sensitivity: Language policies should respect regional identities, avoiding any form of perceived imposition.
  • NEP Alignment: Implement NEP in letter and spirit, ensuring flexibility and choice to learners.
  • Strengthening Language Committees: Empower State-level language committees with binding advisory roles.
  • Pedagogic Validity: Ensure that language policies are backed by scientific and psychological evidence on child learning.

Conclusion:

The Maharashtra language debate is not merely about curriculum but about federalism, identity, and democratic process. In a multilingual democracy like India, language policy must be consensual, inclusive, and culturally sensitive, rather than being driven by political majoritarianism. Education should empower, not alienate.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • GS II (2021): “The jurisdiction of the Central and State governments in the field of education has led to controversies. Critically examine in the context of the NEP 2020.”
  • GS II (2019): “Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness?”
  • GS II (2013): “Language diversity and its impact on governance and development.”

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II:
    • Issues relating to development and management of education
    • Federalism and Centre-State Relations
    • Government policies and interventions
    • Role of pressure groups and social movements

Sources:

  • National Education Policy, 2020
  • Maharashtra State Education Framework, 2024
  • Ministry of Education, GoI
  • The Hindu (July 2025)
  • NCPCR Guidelines on Child Learning

Introduction

The recent U.S. strike on Iranian nuclear facilities during the Israel-Iran war, without UN approval, exemplifies a broader trend of unilateral interventions by the U.S. — from Iraq and Afghanistan to Iran. This renewed U.S. assertiveness, particularly under President Trump’s second term, raises fundamental concerns about American imperialism, the erosion of multilateralism, and challenges for emerging powers such as India.

Body

  1. U.S. Imperialism: Historical and Contemporary Patterns
  • The Iraq War (2003) and Afghanistan invasion (2001) were widely criticized as violations of international law.
  • The 2025 strike on Iran again bypassed the UN Charter (Article 2(4)) that prohibits the use of force except in self-defense or with Security Council approval.
  • American exceptionalism, often backed by military and economic superiority, has led to a norm of selective adherence to international law.
  1. Structural Drivers of Aggression
  • Decline of U.S. hegemony and the rise of China as a technological and economic challenger have created a new bipolar dynamic.
  • The U.S. is attempting to retain global dominance through alliances like Quad, AUKUS, and NATO’s expansion in Asia.
  • Trump’s “America First” doctrine continues to weaken multilateral institutions such as the WTO, WHO, and the UN.
  1. India’s Strategic Dilemma
  • India is caught between its historic policy of non-alignment and growing strategic alignment with the U.S. (e.g., Quad, COMCASA, BECA).
  • India’s neutrality during the U.S.-Iran conflict and softened stance at SCO and BRICS forums reflect this strategic balancing.
  • China’s rise, its territorial aggression along the LAC, and limited BRICS coherence further complicate India’s space in global power politics.
  1. Impact on the Global South
  • Unilateral U.S. actions deepen economic inequality, exacerbate debt crises, and worsen climate justice gaps for developing nations.
  • Trump’s tariff wars, isolationist trade policies, and withdrawal from climate commitments hit the Global South disproportionately.
  • There is growing demand for alternative multilateralism through the Global South, BRICS+, G77, and SCO, but cohesion remains weak.

Way Forward

  • Reaffirm multilateralism: India and other emerging economies must work toward reforming and strengthening UN-based governance structures.
  • Strategic Autonomy: India should maintain multi-alignment and avoid permanent strategic commitments that compromise policy independence.
  • Support the Global South: India must lead on issues like climate equity, trade fairness, and Global South debt restructuring, building counterbalances to unilateral hegemony.
  • Domestic Strengthening: Foreign policy autonomy must be rooted in economic resilience, technological self-reliance, and defense modernization.

Conclusion

U.S. imperialism, reflected in its selective application of international norms, poses a serious challenge to the rule-based global order. For countries like India, the quest for multipolarity, strategic balance, and diplomatic leadership lies in resisting alignment pressures while leveraging plural forums to safeguard sovereignty, democracy, and economic interests.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • UPSC GS II 2022: “Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India’s foreign policy?”
  • UPSC GS II 2020: “’The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one involving global and strategic partnership that will have a great significance for Asia and the world as a whole.’ Comment.”
  • UPSC GS II 2015: “Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member states by China has brought new challenges to the bilateral relations. Do you think that India’s foreign policy is in a state of transition?”

Syllabus Link (GS Paper II):

  • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • India and its neighbourhood relations; international institutions and groupings
  • Bilateral, regional and global groupings involving India or affecting India’s interests

Sources:

  • UN Charter, Articles 2(4) and 51
  • The Hindu (2025): “Is U.S. imperialism a threat to the world?”
  • World Bank (2024): U.S. vs China GDP Statistics
  • MEA Briefs: India’s Engagements with BRICS, Quad, SCO (2025)
  • Carnegie India, Observer Research Foundation: India’s Strategic Autonomy

Introduction:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a cornerstone of global technological progress, with wide-ranging implications across governance, economy, defense, environment, and ethics. India, being a digital-first democracy and a hub of IT talent, has expressed ambitions to lead in AI governance globally, particularly for the Global South. However, in the absence of a comprehensive, transparent, and democratically deliberated national AI strategy, this ambition may falter.

Body:

  1. Strategic Vacuum and Institutional Challenges:
  • India’s primary initiative, the IndiaAI Mission, though promising, is execution-focused and lacks a coherent national vision.
  • A mission without an overarching strategic framework risks ad-hocism, technocratic opacity, and limited legitimacy.
  • Key questions on national priorities, ethics, data governance, and institutional design remain unaddressed.
  1. Geopolitical and Security Implications:
  • AI is increasingly embedded in defense, intelligence, and critical infrastructure.
  • Dependence on foreign AI technologies (from U.S. or China) creates strategic vulnerabilities.
  • A whole-of-government strategy is essential for sovereign AI capabilities, aligned with national security.
  1. Economic and Labour Market Disruptions:
  • In 2024, TCS, Infosys, and Wipro shed 65,000 jobs due to automation and AI adaptation.
  • IMF (2024) estimates that 26% of India’s workforce is exposed to Generative AI, and 12% is at risk of displacement.
  • Current policies ignore reskilling, labour protections, and transition planning, undermining economic and social stability.
  1. Energy and Environmental Externalities:
  • IEA (2024) projects global data centre energy demand will double by 2030.
  • Indian cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad, both emerging AI hubs, face severe water stress and power deficits.
  • Existing AI policy discourse lacks discussion on sustainable scaling of AI infrastructure.
  1. Social and Ethical Risks:
  • AI applications in healthcare, policing, and welfare risk introducing algorithmic bias, privacy breaches, and loss of accountability.
  • Without ethical guidelines and regulatory frameworks, public trust in AI will diminish.
  1. Global Leadership and Domestic Credibility:
  • India’s participation in Global Partnership on AI (GPAI) and similar forums is commendable.
  • However, global leadership demands domestic consistency. A missing national strategy dilutes India’s voice in shaping global norms.

Way Forward:

  1. Publish a Cabinet-approved National AI Strategy and present it in Parliament for open debate.
  2. Constitute a Parliamentary Standing Committee on AI & Emerging Tech to monitor initiatives, ensure accountability, and facilitate stakeholder consultations.
  3. Commission a National AI Impact Assessment Study, focusing on employment disruption, sectoral vulnerabilities, and demographic impacts.
  4. Build an inclusive governance framework involving civil society, educators, industry, and labour representatives for equitable policy outcomes.
  5. Develop a sustainability roadmap for energy-efficient AI, especially in data centre policies.

Conclusion:

To position itself as a true global AI leader, India must prioritize a transparent, democratically grounded strategy over isolated technocratic missions. The ethical, economic, geopolitical, and social dimensions of AI demand an integrated and participatory governance approach. A national AI strategy rooted in public dialogue and constitutional values will ensure strategic autonomy, social trust, and sustainable development.

UPSC GS Paper II Syllabus Linkage:

  • Government Policies and Interventions for development in various sectors.
  • Development processes and the role of the State.
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
  • Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

Previous Year Question Linkage:

  • UPSC Mains 2023 (GS II): “What are the key challenges in regulating emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence and how should India approach them?”
  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS II): “Discuss the role of non-state actors in influencing foreign policy.”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS II): “‘In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and effective policies are essential in the areas of education and health.’ Discuss with suitable examples.”

Sources:

  • IndiaAI Mission (MeitY 2024)
  • IMF Working Paper (2024) on Generative AI & Labour
  • International Energy Agency (IEA) 2024 Report
  • Future of India Foundation Report: Governing AI in India (2025)
  • PIB, Economic Survey 2024–25 (Digital Infrastructure Chapter)

Introduction:

In the digital era, technology has emerged as a critical enabler of inclusive governance, especially in empowering marginalized groups like women and children. The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD) has embraced this vision by integrating technology into welfare delivery under the Viksit Bharat@2047 initiative. From digital Anganwadis to real-time dashboards and grievance redressal systems, India’s tech-led social interventions are redefining access to rights, services, and dignity.

Body:

  1. Nutrition and Early Childhood Care:
  • Saksham Anganwadi Scheme aims to modernize 2 lakh Anganwadi centres with smart infrastructure and digital learning tools.
  • Poshan Tracker integrates services of 14 lakh Anganwadi centres with real-time data and performance monitoring.
    • Over 10.14 crore beneficiaries registered including pregnant women, children, and adolescent girls.
    • Recognised with the PM’s Award for Excellence in Public Administration (2025).
  • Facial recognition technology introduced to curb leakages in the Supplementary Nutrition Programme.
  1. Maternal and Child Health:
  • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY):
    • Provides ₹5,000 for the first child, ₹6,000 for the second child if female.
    • Fully digital, with Aadhaar-based authentication, mobile registration, and paperless DBT.
    • Over ₹19,000 crore disbursed to 4 crore+ women since inception.
  • Outcomes (as per MoHFW’s HMIS, 2023–24):
    • Sex Ratio at Birth improved from 918 (2014–15) to 930.
    • Maternal Mortality Rate fell from 130 (2014–16) to 97 per 1,00,000 births (2018–20).
  1. Safety and Legal Protection for Women:
  • SHe-Box portal allows women to lodge and track complaints of workplace sexual harassment.
  • Mission Shakti dashboard connects women in distress to district-level one-stop centres, now operational in nearly all districts.
  1. Child Protection and Adoption:
  • Under the Juvenile Justice Act, digital tools have strengthened adoption and child protection systems:
    • CARINGS portal ensures transparent adoption processes.
    • Mission Vatsalya dashboard improves convergence in child welfare services.
    • Child Rights monitoring platforms by NCPCR enhance accountability and statutory oversight.

Way Forward:

  • Scale up AI-powered analytics for targeted interventions in malnutrition and education.
  • Promote digital inclusion in tribal and remote regions through offline-enabled apps.
  • Strengthen data privacy protocols to safeguard beneficiaries’ information.
  • Build digital capacity among frontline workers through localized training and vernacular content.

Conclusion:

India’s use of technology in the women and child development sector exemplifies governance with a human face. By transforming Anganwadis into digital hubs and empowering women through mobile-enabled schemes and grievance portals, the government has ensured that technology is not just a tool of efficiency, but of equity, dignity, and empowerment. This model of digitally inclusive welfare is a key pillar in realizing the vision of Amrit Kaal and Viksit Bharat@2047.

UPSC GS Paper II Syllabus Linkage:

  • Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections, performance, and challenges.
  • Development processes and the role of the government in service delivery.
  • Issues relating to women and children – safety, nutrition, education, and legal rights.
  • E-governance applications in service delivery.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:

  • GS II, 2023: “E-governance is an effective tool to improve transparency and accountability in governance. Discuss with examples.”
  • GS II, 2020: “‘Women’s issues in India need to be addressed by better implementation of policies rather than framing new ones.’ Examine.”
  • GS II, 2017: “Examine the role of digital technology in promoting good governance and inclusive growth in India.”

Sources

  • Ministry of Women and Child Development Annual Report (2024–25)
  • Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (HMIS Data)
  • Poshan Tracker Dashboard (2025)
  • PMMVY Guidelines 2022
  • CARINGS Portal – Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA)
  • Mission Vatsalya Dashboard
  • National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR)

(GS Paper II – Governance, Issues relating to Health and Human Resources)
(Also linked to topics on Welfare Schemes, Vulnerable Sections, and Issues relating to Development and Management of Health)

Introduction:

Immunisation is a critical public health intervention aimed at reducing child mortality and ensuring holistic health outcomes. According to The Lancet (2024), India had 1.44 million zero-dose children in 2023, the second-highest globally, despite its structured vaccination campaigns. Zero-dose children — those not receiving even the first dose of DTP (Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis) — are vital indicators of immunisation inequities.

Body:

  1. Trends in Immunisation in India:
  • Improved Coverage: From 33.4% zero-dose children in 1992 to 10.1% in 2016 (Lancet study).
  • Pandemic Impact: Number spiked to 2.7 million in 2021, before falling to 1.1 million in 2022, but rose again to 1.44 million in 2023.
  • Global Context: India contributes to over 9% of the global zero-dose child population despite not being a conflict-ridden or resource-deficient country.
  1. Factors Behind Persistent Zero-Dose Burden:
  • Demographic Pressures: India had 23 million births in 2023 — highest globally — making even small percentages significant in absolute terms.
  • Geographic Clusters:
    • Highest in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.
    • Tribal states like Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh also show disproportionate burden.
  • Socio-Economic Determinants:
    • Higher prevalence among poor households, mothers with low education, Scheduled Tribes, and Muslims.
  • Urban and Migrant Challenges:
    • Urban slums and migrant populations remain outside the reach of routine vaccination drives.
  • Vaccine Hesitancy:
    • Cultural beliefs and misinformation, especially in certain communities, delay or prevent vaccination uptake.

Way Forward:

  1. Targeted Geographic Strategies:
  • Micro-planning in high-burden states with ASHA workers, anganwadis, and mobile health units in tribal belts and urban slums.
  1. Behavioural Communication:
  • Culturally-sensitive IEC campaigns involving local religious leaders, community health ambassadors, and educators to reduce vaccine hesitancy.
  1. Strengthen Urban Immunisation Strategy:
  • Integrate immunisation with urban primary health systems under NUHM to cover migrants and unregistered households.
  1. Data and Monitoring:
  • Use real-time immunisation dashboards like those under Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI 5.0) to identify dropouts and zero-dose clusters.
  1. Align with IA2030 Targets:
  • The WHO’s Immunization Agenda 2030 aims to halve zero-dose children from 2019 baseline (1.4 million for India). India must reduce to 0.7 million by 2030, requiring accelerated and sustained efforts.

Conclusion:

India’s immunisation success story risks being undermined by persistent zero-dose pockets. Addressing this issue requires equity-focused, data-driven, and culturally adaptive strategies. With the right focus, India can meet the IA2030 target and secure the health rights of every child.

Link with Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • GS II, 2019: “Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve Health for All in India.”
  • GS II, 2021: “‘Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.” (Implied link to targeting vulnerable communities for access.)

Introduction

On June 25, 1975, the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a nationwide Emergency under Article 352 of the Constitution, citing “internal disturbance”. It lasted for 21 months, during which fundamental rights were suspended, the press was censored, judicial independence was compromised, and thousands were imprisoned without trial. The Union Cabinet’s resolution in 2025, marking the 50th anniversary, reflects both remembrance and reflection on the constitutional values that were violated and the sacrifices made to uphold democracy.

Body

  1. Constitutional and Democratic Violations During the Emergency
  • Suspension of Fundamental Rights
    • Articles 14, 19, 21, and 22 were effectively nullified.
    • In ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976), the Supreme Court ruled that right to life could be suspended, a decision later acknowledged as erroneous.
  • Press Censorship and Arbitrary Detentions
    • Censorship under Rule 48 of the Defence of India Rules
    • Over 100,000 people, including political opponents, students, and activists, were detained under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA).
  • Subversion of Federalism and Judiciary
    • State governments were dismissed arbitrarily.
    • Transfer of judges and disregard for seniority in appointments, e.g., Justice H.R. Khanna’s supersession.
  1. Resistance and Constitutional Resilience
  • Role of Civil Society and Political Opposition
    • Leaders from across ideological lines—Jayaprakash Narayan, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, L.K. Advani, George Fernandes—mobilized resistance movements.
  • Post-Emergency Reforms
    • 44th Constitutional Amendment Act (1978):
      • Restored Article 21 and Article 19 to their original sanctity.
      • Made internal emergency harder to declare (changed “internal disturbance” to “armed rebellion”).
      • Strengthened judicial safeguards for preventive detention.
  • Symbol of Constitutional Morality
    • Resistance to the Emergency became a benchmark of constitutional morality—the idea that public functionaries must act in alignment with the spirit of the Constitution, not just its letter.

III. Contemporary Relevance of Emergency Commemoration

  • Reaffirming Democratic Values
    • As PM Modi stated, the Emergency was a moment when “democracy was placed under arrest.”
    • The 2025 Cabinet resolution serves as a reminder to resist authoritarianism, protect dissent, and uphold institutions.
  • Need for Vigilance in the Present
    • While India is no longer under formal emergency, concerns over curbing dissent, media control, and use of UAPA and preventive detention laws raise questions about democratic health.
  • Public Memory and Civic Education
    • Commemorations can educate younger generations about vulnerabilities in constitutional democracy and the need for active citizen vigilance.

Way Forward

  • Strengthen Institutional Autonomy
    • Empower Election Commission, Judiciary, and Media to resist political capture.
  • Civic Literacy Campaigns
    • Promote awareness of constitutional rights and duties through education and public discourse.
  • Judicial Recommitment to Fundamental Rights
    • Build on landmark rulings like Puttaswamy (2017) and Navtej Singh Johar (2018) to restore faith in judiciary’s guardianship role.

Conclusion

The Emergency remains a powerful reminder that constitutional democracies are not self-sustaining. They require vigilance, resistance, and moral courage. Commemorating the sacrifices of those who stood against the Emergency reinforces the spirit of the Constitution and underscores the ongoing responsibility to protect democratic freedoms and constitutional integrity.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II – Polity and Governance
    • Indian Constitution: historical underpinnings, amendments, significant provisions
    • Functioning of democratic institutions
    • Separation of powers, constitutional morality, role of civil society

Linked Previous Year Questions

  • UPSC GS II 2020: “Judicial activism and its impact on governance in India.”
  • UPSC GS II 2019: “The Indian Constitution is a living document.” Explain with examples.

                               

Introduction

The right to citizenship is fundamental to exercising all other constitutional rights. However, recent cases from Assam and Jammu & Kashmir reveal the fragile state of citizenship verification processes in India, particularly affecting the marginalised and undocumented. The Supreme Court’s intervention in the case of Jaynab Bibi, and the J&K High Court’s order in Rakshanda Rashid’s case, highlight the growing disconnect between administrative decisions and human rights obligations, as enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948.

Body

  1. The Citizenship Crisis in Assam and J&K
  • Jaynab Bibi Case (2024–25)
    Despite possessing legacy documents and ancestry records, she was declared a “foreigner” by the Foreigners’ Tribunal and the Gauhati High Court. The Supreme Court stay on deportation emphasizes that suspicion cannot replace legal evidence in matters of citizenship (as reaffirmed in Md. Rahim Ali vs State of Assam, 2024).
  • Rakshanda Rashid Case (2025)
    A Pakistani national residing for 38 years in Jammu with a long-term visa, deported in a post-terror crackdown, though her citizenship application from 1996 remains pending. The J&K High Court’s humanitarian intervention cited that “human rights are the most sacrosanct component of a human life.”
  1. Legal and Human Rights Framework
  • Constitutional Protection
    • Article 21 ensures the right to life and dignity even for non-citizens.
    • Article 14 guarantees equality before law for all persons.
  • International Standards
    • UDHR, Article 15: Everyone has the right to a nationality and not be arbitrarily deprived of it.
    • India is signatory to ICCPR (1966): Mandates non-discrimination and humane treatment of all individuals.
  • Judicial Oversight
    • Courts have had to step in where administrative excesses and political narratives dominate due process.
    • Emphasis on evidence-based hearings, legal representation, and non-coercive action until final adjudication.
  1. Challenges in Current Citizenship Framework
  • Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019
    • Grants fast-tracked citizenship to six non-Muslim communities from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, excluding Muslims, thereby institutionalising religious selectivity.
  • Administrative Discretion & Politicization
    • Rhetoric by leaders (e.g., Yogi Adityanath, Himanta Biswa Sarma) exacerbates fear among minorities and undocumented residents.
  • Documentation Crisis
    • Marginalized communities often lack birth records, land deeds, or school certificates, essential for proving legacy links under NRC/Tribunal protocols.

Way Forward

  • Transparent and Humane Policy Reforms
    Simplify and standardize citizenship verification processes with community outreach and legal aid.
  • Independent Monitoring Mechanisms
    Set up judicially monitored bodies to review deportation and foreigner cases, ensuring procedural fairness.
  • Citizenship Tribunals Reform
    Improve transparency, ensure qualified members, and create appellate mechanisms with real-time legal recourse.
  • Strengthen Civil Society Participation
    Enable legal NGOs and human rights defenders to assist affected individuals and depoliticize the process.

Conclusion

Citizenship disputes, especially in border states, reflect a larger crisis of state accountability and procedural justice. While courts have temporarily shielded victims of administrative overreach, systemic reform is essential to ensure human dignity, constitutional values, and India’s commitment to international human rights frameworks. A citizen should not have to fight for an identity that is already theirs.

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II – Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International Relations
    • Mechanisms, laws, institutions and bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of vulnerable sections
    • Fundamental Rights and Human Rights
    • Role of Judiciary in upholding constitutional principles

Previous Year Question Linkage

  • UPSC GS II 2021: “Citizenship, being a privilege, comes with responsibilities. Discuss in the context of India’s recent citizenship policies.”
  • UPSC GS II 2020: “Judicial activism and its impact on good governance in India.”

Introduction

In a constitutional democracy, advocate-client privilege is a foundational element of the right to legal counsel and an integral part of the rule of law. Recent incidents where the Enforcement Directorate (ED) summoned senior advocates like Arvind Datar and Pratap Venugopal—without any evidence of collusion—merely for rendering legal opinions, have stirred concern in the legal fraternity. This move questions the autonomy of legal counsel, and risks chilling effects on the legal profession.

Body

  1. Constitutional and Legal Framework
  • Article 22(1) of the Constitution guarantees the right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner.
  • The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA), 2023, under Section 132, affirms that confidential communications between a lawyer and client are privileged, barring express client consent.
  • The Bar Council of India Rules under the Advocates Act, 1961, mandate lawyers to act without fear or favour.
  1. Implications of Summoning Advocates
  • Undermines Legal Autonomy: Legal advice—even if incorrect—cannot be criminalized unless supported by prima facie evidence of conspiracy.
  • Chilling Effect on Legal Counsel: Fear of summons deters candid advice, especially in politically or commercially sensitive matters.
  • Psychological and Professional Deterrence: The threat of scrutiny can lead to self-censorship, impacting corporate governance, criminal defense, and public interest litigation.
  • Erosion of Institutional Equilibrium: Executive overreach into the domain of legal advice disturbs the checks and balances between the Bar, Bench, and Executive.

III. Judicial Precedents and Bar Response

  • Courts have consistently upheld that advocates must not be harassed for discharging professional duties (e.g., O.P. Sharma v. High Court of Punjab and Haryana, 2011).
  • Bar associations condemned the ED’s actions as violative of professional dignity, fearing this could normalize harassment under coercive statutes like the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002.

Way Forward

  • Judicial Clarification: A declaratory ruling affirming that legal counsel does not imply complicity unless supported by evidence.
  • Bar Council Intervention: Institutional engagement with agencies to assert privileges and defend professional independence.
  • Statutory Safeguards: Parliament must consider reinforcing advocate-client privilege and clarify that opinion-giving is protected expression.
  • Code of Conduct for Investigative Agencies: Internal guidelines must ensure respect for legal boundaries unless genuine criminality is suspected.

Conclusion

The right to counsel is hollow if advocates are vulnerable to investigative coercion merely for offering professional advice. In a democracy governed by the rule of law, lawyers must be free to advise fearlessly, especially in complex or sensitive matters. The recent episode is a wake-up call to restore constitutional balance and protect the legal profession from becoming a casualty of executive overreach.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II: Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary
  • Separation of Powers and role of statutory bodies
  • Rights Issues (Right to legal counsel)

Previous Year Question Linkage:

  • UPSC Mains 2020 (GS II)
    “Judicial legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers.” In the context of the statement, examine the power of the judiciary to review laws.
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS II)
    Do you think that Constitution of India does not accept principle of strict separation of powers but the principle of ‘checks and balances’?

Introduction

The metaphor of ‘Bharat Mata’ or Mother India has been a powerful and emotive symbol in Indian nationalism. However, its use in official state functions by constitutional authorities like Governors has raised concerns about political neutrality and secularism. The recent incident in Kerala, where the Governor displayed an image of Bharat Mata with Hindu religious overtones, has reignited the debate on the limits of symbolism in constitutional spaces.

Body

  1. The Controversy
  • Kerala Governor Rajendra Arlekar displayed an image of Bharat Mata holding a saffron flag and backed by a lion and a map of Akhand Bharat (undivided India) in official Raj Bhavan events.
  • Two Ministers of the Left Democratic Front (LDF) government boycotted the events, accusing the Governor of pushing a Hindu nationalist narrative.
  • The Governor defended the imagery as an expression of nationalism and patriotism, but the controversy led to street-level clashes between BJP and CPI(M) cadres.
  1. Evolution of the Bharat Mata Imagery
  • Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s Anandamath (1882) introduced Bharat Mata as a Hindu goddess, accompanied by the song Vande Mataram.
  • Abanindranath Tagore’s version humanised her, presenting her as a calm, benevolent mother with non-violent symbols like books and beads.
  • Over the years, the image was adapted in films (e.g., Mother India, Devi), calendar art, and political propaganda, ranging from secular nationalism to religious majoritarianism.
  • Artists like M.F. Husain offered alternative, inclusive visualizations, but Hindu nationalist groups often depicted her as a decked-up deity symbolising a unified Hindu Rashtra.

III. Constitutional Concerns

  • Article 153–162 defines the Governor as a constitutional head required to act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
  • The Supreme Court in Nabam Rebia (2016) held that Governors cannot act in a politically partisan manner.
  • Use of religious-political symbols in a constitutional office violates the principle of secularism (Basic Structure) and damages Centre-State relations.

Way Forward

  • Clear code of conduct for Governors regarding use of symbols, art, and public communication in official functions.
  • Reinforce constitutional neutrality and prohibit deployment of majoritarian imagery in public offices.
  • Promote inclusive symbolism representing plural India in state institutions.
  • Dialogue between Governor and elected State government to resolve such conflicts amicably within constitutional bounds.

Conclusion

The Bharat Mata metaphor, though historically significant, carries layered interpretations. In a diverse democracy, constitutional functionaries like Governors must avoid invoking partisan or religious imagery in official settings. Upholding constitutional morality, neutrality, and secularism is imperative to preserve the integrity of public offices and federal harmony.

Syllabus Linkage

GS Paper II: Polity and Governance

  • Functions and responsibilities of the Union and State Governors
  • Separation of powers and federalism
  • Role of constitutional morality in public life

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2019: “Whether the Supreme Court judgment can settle the political tussle between the Lieutenant Governor and elected government of Delhi? Examine.”
  • UPSC Mains 2020: “The role of the Governor in Indian polity often leads to controversies. Critically examine.”

Introduction

The decadal Census is India’s most critical data-gathering exercise, governed by the Census Act of 1948 and conducted by the Registrar General of India (RGI). The last Census was in 2011, and the 2021 round—originally delayed due to COVID-19—has now been postponed to 2027, as notified by the Ministry of Home Affairs (June 2025). This 16-year gap, along with the first-ever inclusion of caste enumeration, raises serious questions on the relevance, accuracy, and political neutrality of the delayed Census.

Body

  1. Governance and Policy Implications of the Delay
  • Outdated Data: Government continues using 2011 data in 2025. As per NITI Aayog, India has added over 150 million people since then. Projections on school enrolment, fertility, migration, urbanisation, and ageing are skewed.
  • Welfare Targeting: Schemes like PDS, PM-KISAN, Ayushman Bharat, and MGNREGS rely on household and demographic data, resulting in misallocation and exclusion due to obsolete figures.
  • Disaster Preparedness: Pandemic and climate planning need real-time migration and settlement patterns, which are absent in current planning mechanisms.
  1. Political and Administrative Concerns
  • Delimitation Politics: Critics argue the delay synchronizes with post-2026 delimitation, enabling political gains using new population data.
  • Caste Enumeration Complexity: With over 40 lakh caste names recorded in the 2011 SECC, training and robust methodology are crucial to prevent inconsistencies.
  • NPR Link Controversy: Combining Census with National Population Register (NPR) may compromise neutrality and create fear among minorities, risking participation and data integrity.
  1. Digital Census and Inclusion Risks
  • While digitization enables faster processing, only 33% of rural women use the Internet (NFHS-5, 2021), making marginalised groups vulnerable to exclusion.
  • Urban poor, remote rural populations, and the elderly may also be left out without door-to-door enumeration.

Way Forward

  1. Ensure Timely Execution: Mandate a non-negotiable 10-year schedule by law to prevent political interference.
  2. Hybrid Enumeration Strategy: Combine digital tools with trained human enumerators to reach excluded populations.
  3. Separate NPR from Census: Avoid policy conflation; keep caste and population data collection neutral and transparent.
  4. Training and Capacity Building: Special focus on caste sensitisation, regional dialects, and digital enumeration.
  5. Mid-Decade Surveys: Institutionalise sample surveys every five years (like NSSO) for dynamic planning between two Censuses.

Conclusion

The Census is more than a headcount—it is the bedrock of governance, welfare, and democracy. Delaying it compromises targeted policymaking, fuels speculation, and erodes public trust. As India prepares for its first digital and caste-enumerated Census, success hinges on timely execution, neutrality, and inclusion, making it a constitutional necessity rather than an administrative formality.

Syllabus Linkages – GS Paper II:

  • Governance and development
  • Government policies and their implementation
  • Role of civil services and institutions in policy formulation

Relevant PYQs:

  • GS-II, 2022: “Census is the basis for economic and social planning in India. Discuss the consequences of its delay.”
  • GS-II, 2021: “Critically examine the role of data in public policy formulation.”
  • GS-II, 2017: “Examine the importance of demographic data in development planning in India.”

Introduction

The University Grants Commission (UGC) regulations in 2023 opened the door for foreign universities to set up branch campuses in India. Early movers such as Deakin University and University of Wollongong (GIFT City, Gujarat) and University of Southampton (Gurugram) have begun operations. While this signals India’s ambition for internationalisation in higher education, emerging trends indicate that foreign campuses face strategic, academic, and operational challenges that could undermine their long-term impact.

Body

  1. Strategic and Operational Challenges
  • Premature Launches: Admissions began before disclosing key details such as faculty qualifications and infrastructure, raising questions about transparency and preparedness.
  • Limited Infrastructure: Most campuses are in rented vertical buildings with minimal “soft infrastructure” (libraries, student centers, labs), making them inadequate substitutes for comprehensive institutions.
  • Marketing over Academics: Some foreign branches rely heavily on branding and digital promotion, with insufficient investment in academic depth, curriculum quality, and faculty development.
  1. Competitive Domestic Landscape
  • India already has:
    • Elite public institutions like IITs, IIMs, expanding global research collaborations.
    • Top-tier private universities (e.g., Ashoka, OP Jindal, Shiv Nadar) offering joint and dual degrees with reputed global partners.
  • In such a competitive environment, foreign institutions lacking top rankings or research output may be seen as redundant or inferior.
  1. Perception and Identity Crisis
  • Narrow Program Focus: Most campuses focus on business, computer science, and analytics — already crowded domains in India.
  • Lack of Differentiation: Without a unique academic offering or research identity, they risk being seen as diploma mills.
  1. Misaligned Motives
  • Many Global North universities are motivated by revenue generation or student recruitment pipelines, rather than genuine academic collaboration.
  • Without Indian incentives (land, funding), top-tier institutions are unlikely to set up campuses.

Way Forward

  1. Rigorous Entry and Evaluation Framework
    • The UGC and Ministry of Education must assess campus proposals based on:
      • Academic merit
      • Faculty credentials
      • Infrastructure commitment
      • Alignment with Indian educational priorities
  2. Long-Term Investment Mandates
    • Require institutions to invest in research infrastructure, student services, and campus development — not just operate through leased buildings.
  3. Curriculum Innovation and Local Relevance
    • Encourage foreign campuses to design India-specific academic programs and include interdisciplinary offerings.
  4. Balanced Regulation
    • Create a central monitoring body to ensure compliance, faculty–student ratio norms, and student protection mechanisms.
  5. Promote Joint Degrees and Hybrid Models
    • Prioritise hybrid partnerships with Indian universities over standalone campuses to ensure wider reach and cost-efficiency.

Conclusion

Foreign university branch campuses in India have the potential to boost global academic integration and elevate standards. However, in the absence of academic seriousness, local engagement, and sustainable investment, these ventures risk becoming short-lived branding exercises. India must approach internationalisation not as a race for foreign logos, but as an opportunity to co-create meaningful, high-quality, and inclusive higher education models that complement national goals.

Syllabus Linkages:

  • GS Paper II: Issues relating to development and management of education
  • GS Paper III: Inclusive growth and related issues; Government policies relating to education, innovation
  • Essay Paper: Higher Education and Knowledge Economy themes

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • UPSC GS II, 2020: National Education Policy 2020 is in alignment with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (SDG-4) of the UN. Discuss the extent to which the NEP 2020 can benefit the Indian higher education system.
  • UPSC Essay, 2021: The best way to predict the future is to create it — role of education in nation-building.

Introduction

Despite growing economic and educational parity, India continues to lag significantly in political empowerment for women, as reflected in the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index 2025, where India ranks 131 out of 148 countries, with an overall gender parity score of 64.1%. While economic and educational indicators have improved marginally, the decline in female political representation has emerged as a key bottleneck. This highlights the urgent need to not just legislate but also actively promote women’s participation in policymaking and governance.

Body

  1. India’s Performance on Global Gender Gap Index 2025
  • Economic Participation: Slight improvement, with the gender parity in earned income increasing from 28.6% to 29.9%; labour force participation remains steady at 45.9%.
  • Educational Attainment and Health: Minor upward movement driven by improved access to basic education and health services.
  • Political Empowerment: Decline noted —
    • Women in Parliament: Dropped from 14.7% to 13.8%
    • Women Ministers: Declined further from 6.5% to 5.6%
  1. Women’s Reservation Bill: Long-Awaited but Delayed Implementation
  • The Women’s Reservation Act, passed in 2023, guarantees 33% reservation for women in Parliament and State Assemblies.
  • Implementation is deferred till 2029, pending Census and Delimitation, delaying immediate change.
  • This deferral risks undermining momentum and reinforces structural exclusion in political representation.
  1. Gaps in Political Will and Party-Level Inclusion
  • Political parties are not legally bound to wait for the 2029 implementation.
  • Yet, women make up a small fraction of candidates fielded, reflecting institutional biases.
  • This undermines not only India’s constitutional vision of equality (Article 15 and 16) but also its international commitments under CEDAW and SDG Goal 5 on gender equality.

Way Forward

  1. Advance Implementation of the Reservation Act:
    Expedite the Census and Delimitation process to ensure implementation before 2029.
  2. Voluntary Political Party Quotas:
    Parties should commit to minimum 33% women candidates in upcoming elections regardless of legal mandates.
  3. Leadership Capacity Building:
    Launch government-supported leadership training programs for aspiring women politicians, especially from marginalized communities.
  4. Institutional Reforms for Electoral Equity:
    Consider party funding incentives, media coverage quotas, and safe political environments for women leaders.
  5. Public Awareness Campaigns:
    Promote gender-inclusive governance through school curricula, public campaigns, and voter awareness drives.

Conclusion

India’s drop in political empowerment indicators is not just a statistical failure but a reflection of deeper institutional and societal inertia. The passage of the Women’s Reservation Bill, though historic, is not enough unless matched by political will, party-level commitment, and civic engagement. True gender parity requires not just counting women in Parliament, but ensuring their voices shape national policy. A democracy is only as inclusive as the people it allows to lead.

Previous UPSC Mains Questions:

  • GS-II 2021: “‘Women empowerment in India needs gender budgeting.’ What are the requirements and status of gender budgeting in the Indian context?”
  • GS-II 2019: “Empowering women is the key to control population growth.” Discuss.
  • GS-II 2016: “To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?”

 Introduction:

Ladakh, a strategically sensitive region, was carved out as a Union Territory (UT) after the abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019. Since then, civil society in both Leh and Kargil has raised sustained demands for constitutional safeguards, protection of indigenous identity, and job opportunities. On June 3, 2025, the Centre notified policy reforms on reservation, domicile, languages, and hill council composition to address long-standing grievances.

Body:

  1. Key Provisions in the June 2025 Measures:
  1. Reservation and Domicile:
    • Up to 85% reservation in public employment for indigenous Ladakhis.
    • 15-year continuous residence from 2019 mandated for domicile status — migrants post-2019 eligible only in 2034.
    • Aligns with similar models in Mizoram (92%) and Arunachal Pradesh (80%).
  2. Language and Political Inclusion:
    • Five official languages: English, Hindi, Urdu, Bhoti, and Purgi.
    • One-third reservation for women in Ladakh Hill Development Councils.
  3. Unfulfilled Demands:
    • Statehood and inclusion under Sixth Schedule (for tribal protection and autonomy).
    • Public Service Commission for Ladakh and an additional Lok Sabha seat.
    • As per the Parliamentary Panel, 1,275 gazetted posts remain vacant since 2019, raising concerns about employment and governance.
  1. Strategic Importance and Local Sentiment:
  • Ladakh borders both China and Pakistan; recent Sino-Pak alignments heighten the need for local trust and stability.
  • Protests and civil society movements reflect a deep disconnect between policy reforms and grassroots aspirations.
  • Lack of employment, fear of demographic dilution, and cultural erosion dominate regional concerns.

Way Forward:

  • Sixth Schedule inclusion or equivalent safeguards under Article 371 should be considered for tribal rights and autonomy.
  • Fill vacant posts through a dedicated Ladakh Public Service Commission.
  • Political representation via an additional Lok Sabha seat and strengthening of local governance bodies.
  • Develop a comprehensive youth employment plan, including MSMEs, tourism, and eco-development.
  • Ensure inclusive consultations in framing the rules of the new policy and institutionalize civil society representation in decision-making.

Conclusion:

The June 2025 measures are a welcome but partial step toward addressing Ladakh’s concerns. Constitutional guarantees, adequate employment avenues, and genuine political representation are essential to stabilize the region, foster democratic legitimacy, and secure India’s strategic frontiers. The success of the Centre’s policy must be measured not just in announcements but in implementation and responsiveness to the voice of Ladakh’s people.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II:
    • Governance and Constitution
    • Government policies and issues arising out of their implementation
    • Role of civil society in governance
    • Centre-State and Centre-UT relations

Relevant UPSC Previous Year Questions:

  • GS II 2023: “The Inter-State Council needs to be strengthened to reinforce cooperative federalism in India.” Discuss.
  • GS II 2022: “Discuss the role of Civil Services in a democracy.”
  • GS II 2020: “Do you think that the constitution of India does not accept the principle of strict separation of powers rather it is based on the principle of ‘checks and balances’?”

Introduction

India has over 300 active Central and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) spanning social and infrastructure sectors. In a recent policy move (June 2025), the Ministry of Finance directed that schemes must pass a third-party evaluation to prove effectiveness before they are extended beyond FY 2025–26, and must also carry sunset clauses to limit indefinite budgetary support. This reflects a fiscal rationalization effort aimed at improving the efficiency, transparency, and outcome orientation of public spending.

Body

  1. Rationale Behind the Reform
  • Rising Fiscal Pressure: Central government expenditure on schemes has risen steadily. According to the 2024-25 Union Budget, CSS and Central Sector Schemes accounted for nearly 60% of total revenue expenditure.
  • Accountability Gap: Past CAG reports and NITI Aayog reviews have highlighted limited monitoring, poor targeting, and low outcome tracking in several schemes.
  • Effective Utilization: The reform ensures that scarce public resources are allocated to schemes with measurable impact and not driven by inertia or populist pressures.
  1. Key Provisions of the Circular
  • Sunset Clause: All schemes must define an end-date, compelling periodic evaluation and discouraging redundancy.
  • Fund Limitations: Total outlay for a scheme over the 16th Finance Commission cycle (2026–31) must be within 5.5 times the average past 4 years’ expenditure.
  • Outcome-Linked Renewal: Only schemes that pass third-party (for Central Sector) or NITI Aayog-led (for CSS) evaluation can be extended.
  • Demand-Driven Schemes Impact: Even flexible programs like MGNREGS will be capped based on projections, with stricter approvals for exceeding allocations.
  1. Implications
  • Positive Impacts:
    • Improved Governance: Promotes outcome-based planning and results-driven budgeting.
    • Resource Optimization: Enables reallocation to priority sectors or underperforming geographies.
    • Checks populism in fiscally strained contexts.
  •  Concerns:
    • Welfare Risks: Essential schemes (e.g., ICDS, PMAY, MGNREGS) may suffer if narrowly judged by quantifiable indicators.
    • Centre-State Tensions: States may find CSS less flexible if centrally imposed caps reduce state autonomy.
    • Bureaucratic Bottlenecks: Over-dependence on evaluations could delay fund disbursals.

Way Forward

  1. Balanced Evaluation Framework: Combine quantitative metrics with qualitative assessments (e.g., social inclusion, gender equity).
  2. Digital Tracking Systems: Expand JAM trinity, PFMS, and DBT dashboards for real-time monitoring.
  3. Strengthen Local Governance Role: Involve Panchayats and ULBs in beneficiary feedback to assess ground-level effectiveness.
  4. Flexible Design for Flagship Schemes: Exempt core social safety nets (e.g., MGNREGS, NFSA) from rigid caps.

Conclusion

The move to link scheme continuity with measurable outcomes is a commendable step toward fiscal prudence and administrative efficiency. However, equity and accessibility must remain central to scheme design and evaluation. A hybrid approach, blending fiscal discipline with welfare sensitivity, will ensure that public expenditure reforms reinforce, rather than restrict, inclusive development.

 

Syllabus Mapping

  • GS Paper II – Governance
    • Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable Sections
    • Issues relating to Development and Management of Social Sector/Services
    • Centre-State Relations and Fiscal Federalism
  • GS Paper III – Public Expenditure and Budgeting

Relevant PYQs

  • “Do government schemes ensure inclusive growth? Examine with suitable examples.” (UPSC GS-II, 2020)
  • “Examine the role of NITI Aayog in fostering cooperative federalism in India.” (UPSC GS-II, 2018)
  • “How do pressure groups influence Indian political and economic systems?” (UPSC GS-II, 2017)

Model Answer:

The recent extension of the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition (2016-2030) underscores the need for holistic approaches to tackle malnutrition. While global efforts have traditionally focused on the first 1,000 days of life, emerging evidence highlights the importance of the next 4,000 days (including adolescence) as a second window of opportunity for nutritional interventions.

Integrating food and nutrition education (FNE) into school curricula can play a transformative role by:

  1. Promoting Dietary Diversity – Aligning with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), FNE can improve children’s access to diverse, nutrient-rich diets, combating deficiencies and obesity.
  2. Linking Health & Sustainability – Teaching bio-diverse diets fosters environmental consciousness by encouraging local, seasonal, and traditional foods.
  3. Building Lifelong Habits – Schools serve as ideal settings to instill healthy eating behaviours, reducing future risks of diabetes and other diet-related diseases.
  4. Empowering Youth as Change Agents – Educated children can influence family and community dietary practices, amplifying impact.

India’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and School Health and Wellness Programme provide frameworks, but structured curricula, teacher training, and experiential learning (e.g., kitchen gardens) are needed for effective implementation.

Syllabus Linkage & Previous Year Questions

Relevant UPSC Syllabus Topics:

  • GS-2 (Governance): Issues relating to poverty and hunger; Government policies for health and education.
  • GS-3 (Economy): Food security and malnutrition; Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
  • GS-4 (Ethics): Role of education in value-based decision-making.

Previous Year Questions:

  1. “How far do you agree with the view that the focus on lack of availability of food as the main cause of hunger takes the attention away from ineffective human development policies in India?” (GS-3, 2018)
    • Link: Highlights the need for nutrition education alongside food security measures.
  2. “Examine the role of schools in inculcating healthy dietary habits among children to combat malnutrition.” (GS-2, Expected)
    • Link: Directly connects to the article’s argument for school-based FNE.
  3. “Discuss the significance of sustainable food systems in achieving SDG-2.” (GS-3, 2021)
    • Link: Emphasizes bio-diverse diets and environmental sustainability in nutrition.

Conclusion:

A structured food and nutrition curriculum in schools can bridge gaps in India’s fight against malnutrition while advancing SDGs 2, 3 (Good Health), and 4 (Quality Education). By empowering children as agents of change, India can ensure long-term health, environmental sustainability, and equitable development.

Introduction:

On the 11th anniversary of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s leadership, the government introduced the term “Amrit Generation”—referring to youth born around 2014, now entering higher education or the job market. This coinage reflects a strategic outreach to India’s burgeoning youth demographic, aligning with the broader vision of “Amrit Kaal” (2022–2047), a period envisioned for national rejuvenation. The government’s emphasis lies on youth-centric initiatives that bolster financial inclusion, education, innovation, and entrepreneurship.

Body:

  1. Key Government Initiatives for the ‘Amrit Generation’:
  2. Financial & Digital Inclusion
  • Jan Dhan Yojana: Over 52.8 crore accounts opened as of March 2024 (Ministry of Finance), providing access to banking, credit, and insurance.
  • Digital India Programme: Enabled widespread access to services; UPI transactions crossed ₹18.41 lakh crore in April 2024 alone (NPCI data).
  1. Education & Innovation
  • National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Introduced multidisciplinary learning, vocational integration, coding at school level, and emphasis on critical thinking.
  • Atal Tinkering Labs (ATL): Over 10,000 ATLs established to promote STEM innovation at school level (NITI Aayog).
  1. Youth Entrepreneurship & Self-Reliance
  • Start-up India Mission: India is home to over 1.25 lakh startups and 110 unicorns as of 2024 (DPIIT).
  • Drone Didis & Lakhpati Didis: Empowerment of women in rural India via drone training and income-enhancement schemes under DAY-NRLM.
  • Make in India – Defence Sector: Defence production increased to ₹1.27 lakh crore in FY 2023–24; private sector participation is rising (MoD Annual Report).
  1. Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT)
  • Over ₹34 lakh crore transferred to beneficiaries under various schemes since 2014, with savings of ₹2.7 lakh crore by eliminating leakages (DBT Bharat Portal, 2024).
  1. Critical Assessment:
  • Strengths: Massive digital penetration, rising entrepreneurship spirit, streamlined governance, and foundational reforms in education.
  • Concerns: Persistent skill-job mismatch, unemployment among educated youth (urban unemployment at 6.7%, PLFS 2023), and urban-rural digital divides.

Way Forward:

  1. Strengthen Skill-Education Link: Align higher education curricula with evolving industry needs, especially AI, green tech, and cyber security.
  2. Inclusive Digital Expansion: Bridge rural-urban gaps through BharatNet, digital literacy missions, and vernacular e-governance services.
  3. Foster Job Creation: Focus on sectors with multiplier effects—manufacturing, renewable energy, tourism, and digital services.
  4. Institutionalize Youth Voice: Create permanent youth councils to advise on national policies affecting the “Amrit Generation.”

Conclusion:

The Modi government’s outreach to the “Amrit Generation” aims to forge a legacy of transformation by aligning youth aspirations with national goals. While achievements in digital infrastructure, education, and financial access are commendable, the next phase of Amrit Kaal demands deep investment in job-rich growth, equitable access, and policy continuity. The real test lies in converting demographic advantage into socio-economic dividends.

Syllabus Linkage – UPSC GS Paper II:

  • Governance: Role of Government Policies in Development
  • Government interventions in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation
  • Development processes and the role of NGOs, SHGs, and other stakeholders
  • Issues relating to development and management of social sector services

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS II (2021): “Do government schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by and large address the issue of poverty alleviation and empowerment?”
  • GS II (2020): “Digital economy in India is a powerful driver of inclusiveness and empowerment.” Discuss.
  • GS II (2019): “Empowering citizens and ensuring their participation in governance is the most important factor in the success of Indian democracy.” Comment.

Introduction

The Office of the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, mandated under Article 93 of the Constitution, is a constitutional necessity ensuring uninterrupted parliamentary functioning. However, the prolonged vacancy in the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24) and the delay in the 18th Lok Sabha (2024 onwards) raise concerns about constitutional disregard and erosion of parliamentary norms.

Constitutional & Historical Significance

  1. Constitutional Mandate:
    • Article 93 requires the Lok Sabha to elect a Speaker and Deputy Speaker “as soon as may be”, implying urgency.
    • Article 94 ensures the Deputy Speaker remains in office until resignation, removal, or disqualification.
    • The absence of a fixed timeline has led to exploitation, with recent governments delaying appointments.
  2. Historical Precedents:
    • The position traces back to the Central Legislative Assembly (1921), where Sachidanand Sinha was the first Deputy President.
    • Post-independence, M.A. Ayyangar (1952) set a precedent by ensuring continuity after Speaker Mavalankar’s death.
    • Convention of Opposition Representation: Traditionally, the post was offered to the Opposition (e.g., Shivraj Patil in 1980, Kariya Munda in 2004) to maintain bipartisanship.

Contemporary Challenges & Violations

  1. Constitutional Anomaly:
    • The 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24) functioned without a Deputy Speaker, the first such case in Indian history.
    • The delay contradicts the spirit of Article 93, which mandates prompt election.
  2. Erosion of Parliamentary Conventions:
    • The unwritten norm of Opposition representation has been ignored, centralizing power with the ruling party.
    • Lack of Deputy Speaker weakens institutional checks, as the Speaker alone controls proceedings.
  3. Potential Risks:
    • In case of the Speaker’s absence, procedural deadlock may arise.
    • Undermines neutrality, as the Deputy Speaker is expected to act impartially like the Speaker.

Need for Reform

  1. Legislative Clarity:
    • Amend Article 93 to specify a time-bound appointment (e.g., within 60 days of Lok Sabha’s first sitting).
    • Introduce a statutory mechanism where the President can intervene if the House fails to elect one.
  2. Restoring Conventions:
    • Revive the practice of appointing an Opposition MP to foster bipartisan trust.
    • Strengthen parliamentary scrutiny to prevent executive overreach in delaying appointments.

Conclusion

The Deputy Speaker’s role is not ceremonial but a constitutional safeguard ensuring legislative stability. The prolonged vacancy reflects institutional decay and undermines democratic accountability. Immediate corrective measures—legal reforms and adherence to conventions—are necessary to restore parliamentary integrity.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS-II (Indian Polity & Governance)
    • Parliament & State Legislatures – Structure, Functioning, Conduct of Business, Powers & Privileges
    • Constitutional Posts – Powers, Functions & Responsibilities
    • Role of Speaker & Deputy Speaker in Parliamentary Democracy
  • Previous Year Questions (PYQs) on Related Themes:
    • *”The Speaker is the true guardian of the traditions of parliamentary democracy.” Comment (2022, GS-II).*
    • *”Discuss the role of presiding officers of state legislatures in maintaining order and impartiality in conducting legislative work.” (2021, GS-II).*
    • *”Indian Constitution provides for a parliamentary system with a strong executive but also ensures checks and balances.” Elaborate (2019, GS-II).*

Introduction:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has rapidly transformed the global socio-economic landscape, with its potential to revolutionize sectors ranging from healthcare to education, banking, and governance. As AI technologies advance, the need for robust governance frameworks to regulate their use becomes increasingly important. While many countries have already begun implementing AI policies and regulations, India’s approach remains unique and underdeveloped in comparison. This essay critically examines India’s current approach to AI governance, identifies gaps, and explores the way forward by drawing lessons from global regulatory frameworks.

Body:

  1. Current Status of AI Governance in India:
    India’s approach to AI governance is characterized by the absence of a comprehensive AI regulatory framework or an officially approved National AI Strategy. The 2018 NITI Aayog document, titled ‘National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence,’ lays down a comprehensive framework but remains a recommendation rather than a formal law or policy. The IndiaAI mission, which aims to foster AI innovation, focuses on seven pillars but lacks a clear implementation roadmap, budget allocation, and accountability mechanisms. As a result, while India is making significant strides in AI adoption, the governance of AI remains fragmented and lacks coherence.
  2. Global Approaches to AI Governance:
    Several countries and regions, including China, the European Union (EU), the U.S., and Canada, have taken varying approaches to regulate AI. The EU, for example, has introduced comprehensive regulatory measures like the Artificial Intelligence Act, focusing on a risk-based approach to regulate high-risk AI systems. In contrast, the U.S. has taken a more sector-specific and decentralized approach, with states and industries implementing their own regulations. China has implemented AI laws specific to certain use cases, such as generative AI and deep synthesis. These countries offer valuable lessons on the importance of a balanced approach that promotes innovation while ensuring ethical use, security, and privacy.
  3. Lessons for India:
    India can draw important lessons from these global experiences:
    • Centralized and Cross-sectoral Approach: Like the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and China’s Personal Information Protection Law, India could adopt a centralized, cross-sectoral approach to AI regulation, leveraging frameworks such as the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023.
    • Ethical Guidelines and Transparency: A comprehensive AI policy could help in establishing ethical guidelines and promoting transparency in AI use. This would foster public trust and ensure that AI systems are aligned with societal values.
    • Pilot Programs and Testing: Before rolling out comprehensive AI regulations, India could pilot enforcement tools, as suggested by international examples. This would allow the government to test the efficacy of AI governance structures and make adjustments before implementing nationwide laws.
    • Public Awareness and Civic Discourse: There is a significant gap in public discourse on AI governance in India. Drawing inspiration from the global push for transparency, India must foster public discussions on AI’s ethical implications, its potential risks, and its societal impact.
  4. Challenges Facing India’s AI Governance:
    India faces several challenges in regulating AI:
    • Lack of Legislative Framework: The absence of a formal AI law and implementation plan leaves AI adoption unregulated, increasing the risk of unethical use, privacy violations, and bias in decision-making.
    • Uneven Development and Adoption: While AI adoption is on the rise in India, its development is still concentrated in a few sectors. The lack of a clear strategy hampers widespread AI deployment in key areas like healthcare, agriculture, and education.
    • Ethical and Societal Concerns: AI’s rapid integration into daily life, without appropriate regulatory guardrails, could lead to discrimination, exclusion, and social harm. Instances of AI-generated content fueling violence and misinformation underscore the need for a robust governance framework.

Way Forward:

To address these challenges and improve India’s AI governance, the following steps are recommended:

  • Establish an AI Policy Framework: India should prioritize the formulation of a national AI policy that includes clear guidelines on AI ethics, data privacy, and cybersecurity. This policy should set a roadmap for AI adoption across sectors and establish an authoritative body for AI regulation.
  • Legislation on AI Governance: Following the example of the DPDP Act, India could introduce legislation specifically regulating AI systems, with a focus on high-risk sectors. This would provide a legal framework for AI development and ensure accountability in its deployment.
  • Promote Public Awareness and Stakeholder Engagement: The government must initiate a national dialogue on AI governance, encouraging public discourse on the benefits, risks, and ethical considerations of AI.
  • Foster International Collaboration: India should collaborate with other nations to align its AI policies with global standards, ensuring that its AI systems remain competitive and ethical while fostering innovation.

Conclusion:

AI is poised to play a transformative role in India’s future, but its development and implementation must be regulated to avoid potential risks. India’s current approach, while flexible, lacks the necessary clarity and long-term vision to ensure safe and inclusive AI adoption. By learning from global experiences and implementing a coherent policy framework, India can create a balanced environment that fosters innovation while protecting its citizens from the risks of unchecked AI development. The way forward lies in establishing a clear governance structure that is adaptive, transparent, and inclusive of all stakeholders.

Link to Previous Years’ Questions:

  1. GS Paper II (Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International relations)
    • “Discuss the ethical implications of Artificial Intelligence and its governance. How should India address the challenges posed by AI?”
  2. GS Paper II (Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International relations)
    • “Evaluate India’s regulatory framework for data protection and privacy. How can it be strengthened to accommodate the challenges posed by AI?”
  3. GS Paper II (Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International relations)
    • “What are the potential risks and benefits of Artificial Intelligence in India’s socio-economic context? Suggest measures to ensure its ethical use.”

Introduction

The Right to Information (RTI) Act, enacted in 2005, has been a cornerstone of India’s governance, ensuring transparency and accountability by allowing citizens to access public records. Over the years, it has empowered ordinary citizens and civil society organizations to demand greater accountability from public officials and institutions. However, recent amendments, particularly through Section 44(3) of the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023, have raised concerns regarding potential threats to the very essence of transparency and the public’s right to access information. The amendments specifically modify Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act, which governs the disclosure of personal information. This has sparked a debate on the balance between privacy rights and the right to information.

Body

  1. Impact of the Amendments on the RTI Act
    The primary concern stems from the amendment in Section 44(3) of the DPDP Act, which allows government bodies to withhold “personal information” without the safeguard of public interest, which was previously outlined in Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act. The earlier provision balanced the right to privacy with transparency by providing an exception to withhold personal information only when it does not serve the public interest. However, the new amendment expands the scope of withholding information under the vague definition of “personal information,” which could restrict access to data that is critical for public scrutiny.
  2. The K.S. Puttaswamy Judgment and Its Relevance
    The K.S. Puttaswamy judgment (2017) recognized privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution. While this judgment emphasized the importance of privacy, it also acknowledged that privacy must be balanced with public interest, especially when the information pertains to public servants or matters of governance. The amendment introduced in the DPDP Act, however, shifts the balance, undermining the provisions of the RTI Act by allowing the government to restrict public access to information on the grounds of personal privacy without assessing the public interest.
  3. Potential Threats to Accountability and Transparency
    The amendment to Section 8(1)(j) in the RTI Act could be used to deny access to vital information, especially in cases where there is a public interest in exposing misuse of power, corruption, or misconduct. For instance, the disclosure of public servants’ credentials, such as caste certificates or educational degrees, which were previously accessible under RTI requests, could now be withheld, even in cases where the information has a direct bearing on the public’s right to know about the integrity of its officials.
  4. Defending the Amendment: Government’s Stance
    In defense of the amendment, Union Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw argued that Section 44(3) aimed to prevent misuse of the RTI Act while striking a balance between privacy and transparency. He contended that certain types of information, like public officials’ salaries, would still remain accessible under the DPDP Act. However, this justification fails to address the broader concern that a vague definition of “personal information” could be exploited to curtail public access to a wide range of data that is essential for governance and public scrutiny.

Way Forward

  1. Clarity and Safeguards
    The government should ensure that the definition of “personal information” under the DPDP Act is clearly defined to avoid misuse. Specific provisions should be included to prevent arbitrary withholding of information that serves the public interest.
  2. Reverting Amendments to the RTI Act
    The provision amending the RTI Act under Section 44(3) of the DPDP Act should be reconsidered. Any changes to the RTI Act should be carefully deliberated upon, with active consultations from civil society, transparency activists, and stakeholders, to preserve its effectiveness as a tool for accountability.
  3. Strengthening Public Interest Safeguards
    The RTI Act should retain and strengthen its public interest clauses, ensuring that in cases where public interest outweighs the privacy concerns, information can still be accessed. A balanced approach must be adopted that recognizes both the fundamental right to privacy and the essential role of transparency in a democracy.
  4. Public Awareness and Engagement
    It is crucial to continue raising awareness about the significance of the RTI Act and involve the public in discussions about its future. Civil society and citizens must be empowered to demand greater accountability and transparency, ensuring that governance remains open and responsive to the needs of the people.

Conclusion

The RTI Act has been a monumental step towards transparency and accountability in India. However, the recent amendments to the Act, through the DPDP Act, pose a significant threat to its effectiveness. While privacy concerns are valid and need protection, the government must strike a fair balance between privacy and transparency. Reconsidering these amendments and engaging in an open dialogue with stakeholders will ensure that the RTI Act remains a powerful tool for ensuring governance that is both transparent and accountable.

 

Link to Previous Year’s Questions

  • “Discuss the role of transparency in enhancing governance. How has the RTI Act contributed to improving public accountability?”
  • “Analyze the relationship between privacy rights and the right to information in the context of Indian governance.”

Introduction:

Climate change and gender inequality are two of the most pressing challenges of our time. In India, especially in rural areas, these crises intersect and amplify each other. Despite frameworks like the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995) which outlined goals for gender equality, the climate dimension has remained insufficiently integrated into gender policy and vice versa. As Neeraja Kudrimoti notes, the lived experiences of women, particularly in vulnerable areas like Kanker in Chhattisgarh, reflect the systemic failure to consider the gender-climate nexus.

Gendered Impacts of Climate Change in India:

  1. Educational Disruption:
    • Girls are dropping out of schools due to climate-induced migration and increasing domestic responsibilities, undermining intergenerational social mobility.
  2. Health and Nutrition:
    • Over 50% of pregnant women in India are anaemic, with food insecurity exacerbated by climate-induced agricultural stress.
    • Rise in temperature correlates with increased intimate partner violence—8% rise in physical and 7.3% in sexual violence per °C rise.
  3. Livelihood and Economic Impact:
    • Women face nearly 33% income loss from non-farm livelihoods due to climate extremes like heatwaves and droughts.
    • They shoulder disproportionate unpaid care work, with 71% of women’s work hours being unpaid (Arsht-Rock Report).
  4. Migration and Vulnerability:
    • Climate-driven distress migration exposes women to trafficking, reproductive health issues, and social insecurity.

The Role of Women in Climate Adaptation and Mitigation:

  1. Traditional Knowledge and Practices:
    • Women conserve climate-resilient seed varieties and practice sustainable agriculture, especially in indigenous communities.
  2. Collective Action:
    • Women-led collectives act as first responders in disasters and custodians of local ecosystems.
  3. Priority Areas for Rural Women:
    • Forest-based livelihoods (Mahua), conflict resolution (Mao), and migration-related adaptation (Migration) are key local concerns.

Challenges in Existing Climate Policy:

  • Only 6% of climate policies mention women, and 1% mention the poor (FAO).
  • Policies are often limited to clean energy and green transport, ignoring socio-economic vulnerabilities.
  • Budgeting mechanisms often result in greenwashing and tokenistic inclusion of women.

Way Forward: A Roadmap for Gender-Responsive Climate Action:

  1. Policy and Governance Reforms:
  • Formulate a gender-responsive National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and State Action Plans (SAPCC).
  • Institutionalise climate-gender budgeting with gender audits to ensure accountability.
  • Strengthen disaster preparedness with a special focus on women’s safety, reproductive rights, and geriatric support.
  1. Institutional Support and Local Governance:
  • Establish Climate Support Hubs offering services like healthcare, migration assistance, and legal aid.
  • Facilitate community consultations to include women in local climate decision-making.
  • Promote urban-rural women’s leadership in climate governance and political participation.
  1. Livelihood Diversification and Capacity Building:
  • Invest in non-farm skilling programs and green entrepreneurship for women.
  • Bridge the agricultural resource gender gap, potentially increasing yields by 20–30%, feeding 100–150 million more people.
  1. Private Sector and International Collaboration:
  • Encourage green funds to invest in women-led innovations and climate-resilient products.
  • Foster multi-stakeholder partnerships (government, private sector, CSOs, research bodies) for knowledge exchange and joint advocacy.

Conclusion:

Gender-responsive climate action is not just a moral imperative; it is a strategic necessity for building a resilient and inclusive India. Empowering women with leadership roles in climate mitigation and adaptation will lead to better policy outcomes, economic gains, and sustainable development. A just climate transition must place women at the center of decision-making, planning, and implementation at every level—from villages to national capitals.

 

 

Model Answer:

India’s efforts to extend social security to gig and platform-based workers mark a significant milestone in recognizing the shifting paradigms of employment. However, the existing framework, built on traditional employer-employee relationships and welfare boards, remains ill-equipped to address the diverse and precarious realities of informal and gig economy workers.

Limitations of India’s Current Social Security Framework:

  1. Fragmentation and Reactivity:
    • Social security schemes in India often emerge reactively, only after new worker categories like gig workers or beedi workers gain attention.
    • This leads to piecemeal reforms that fail to provide comprehensive, long-term coverage.
  2. Dependence on Inefficient Welfare Boards:
    • State-level welfare boards underperform due to poor fund utilization, delayed remittances, and limited reach.
    • For instance, ₹70,744 crore collected for construction workers’ welfare remains unutilized in many states.
  3. Exclusion of Informal Workers:
    • Informal and gig workers, who comprise the bulk of India’s workforce, are largely outside the ambit of existing protections due to ambiguous legal definitions and weak enforcement.
  4. Lack of Universal Mandates:
    • India has not ratified ILO Convention 102 on minimum social security standards.
    • The Code on Social Security, 2020, lacks clarity in key provisions and offers only a skeletal structure.
  5. Platform-Specific Challenges:
    • Gig workers often have multiple employers, making it difficult to assign responsibility and implement a contributory pension or welfare scheme under current frameworks.

Way Forward: Towards a Universal, Inclusive System:

  1. Adopt a Universal Social Protection Framework:
    • Treat the Code on Social Security as a foundational baseline, not a ceiling.
    • Develop systems that provide basic income security, health insurance, and pension to all workers, regardless of employment status.
  2. Technology-Driven Registration and Tracking:
    • Use platforms like eShram to assign universal account numbers to workers and enable portability of benefits across employers and sectors.
  3. Hybrid Approach: Universal + Targeted:
    • Ensure basic social protection for all, while also enabling targeted interventions for vulnerable groups (e.g., gig, migrant, or domestic workers).
  4. Reform Welfare Boards:
    • Mandate transparency, real-time fund usage tracking, and outcome-based evaluation of welfare boards.
    • Allow direct benefit transfers (DBTs) to eliminate intermediaries.
  5. Federal Coordination with State Innovations:
    • Encourage states to pilot innovative schemes within the Code’s framework, promoting healthy federal experimentation.
  6. Ratify ILO Convention 102:
    • This would signal India’s commitment to international norms and catalyze legislative and administrative reforms.

Conclusion:

India’s vision of a “future-ready” workforce cannot be realized without universal social protection. An inclusive, technology-backed, rights-based system, adaptable to evolving work arrangements, is imperative. Rather than chasing temporary fixes for emerging worker categories, India must institutionalize a social contract that ensures dignity, security, and justice for all workers.

Link to Relevant UPSC Mains Previous Year Questions:

  1. GS Paper 2 (2021):
    “Implementation of e-governance in the context of Digital India programme has not been smooth sailing. Explain.”
    Link: Relevance to digital registration like eShram and tech-based universal accounts.
  2. GS Paper 2 (2020):
    “’Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.”
    Link: Informal and gig workers also need integration into skill and social protection systems.
  3. GS Paper 2 (2019):
    “Despite the consistent experience of high growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development.”
    Link: Gaps in social security for informal sector reflect in poor welfare outcomes.
  4. GS Paper 3 (2023):
    “How is the Indian economy adapting to the evolving nature of work, especially with the rise of gig and platform economies?”
    Link: Directly connected to gig worker welfare and policy adaptations.
  1. Challenges in Resolving Maoist Insurgency
  • Ideological Rigidity: Maoists reject surrender policies as “incomplete,” insisting on preconditions like ceasefire & withdrawal of security ops (e.g., Bastar’s “Kagar campaign”).
  • Fragmented Leadership: Decentralized decision-making (e.g., need for local & central Maoist leaders’ consensus) complicates negotiations.
  • Trust Deficit: Maoists accuse the state of insincerity (e.g., Chhattisgarh Deputy CM’s rejection of “favourable environment” demand).
  • Violence as Leverage: Govt. refuses talks under threat (e.g., Sharma’s condition: “no dialogue amid violence”).
  1. Critique of Government’s Approach
  • Surrender-Centric Strategy: Financial incentives (e.g., ₹1 crore/village for Maoist-free declaration) may not address root causes like tribal alienation.
  • Security-First Mindset: Heavy militarization (e.g., anti-Naxal ops) risks civilian alienation, as alleged by Maoists.
  • Development Gaps: Infrastructure projects (e.g., mining in Bastar) often bypass local needs, fueling resentment.
  1. Measures for Sustainable Peace
  • Holistic Rehabilitation: Beyond cash rewards, provide education/livelihoods to surrendered cadres (e.g., Chhattisgarh’s 2025 policy).
  • Inclusive Dialogue: Engage civil society & tribal councils as mediators to bridge trust gaps.
  • Address Grievances: Land rights, forest governance, and equitable resource sharing (e.g., PESA Act implementation).
  • Balanced Security: Combine “clear-hold-develop” tactics with grassroots intelligence to minimize collateral damage.

 

Conclusion

While surrender policies and security ops have weakened Maoist influence, lasting peace requires addressing socio-economic disparities and ensuring tribal inclusion. A multi-pronged strategy—combining dialogue, development, and calibrated force—is essential to mainstream LWE-affected regions.

Relevant Syllabus Topics (GS III):

  • Internal Security: Linkages of extremism with development, role of state & non-state actors.
  • Governance: Surrender & rehabilitation policies, conflict resolution mechanisms.
  • Social Justice: Tribal rights, displacement, and development challenges in LWE zones.

Previous Year Questions:

  • 2022: “The persisting drives of the government for development of large industries in backward areas have resulted in isolating the tribal population and fomenting Left-Wing Extremism.” Discuss.
  • 2020: “What are the determinants of Left-Wing Extremism in Eastern India? Suggest measures to counter it.”
  • 2018: “Naxalism is a social, economic, and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat.” Analyze.

Introduction

India’s governance system has increasingly relied on identity verification mechanisms, with Aadhaar being the most prominent Unique ID. However, the conflation between functional IDs (like Voter ID) and Unique IDs has led to administrative and legal complications. The ECI’s push to link Voter IDs with Aadhaar aims to eliminate duplicate voting but raises concerns about mandatory biometric identification, privacy, and exclusion risks. The Maharashtra elections (2024) exposed flaws in voter registration, necessitating reforms—yet the solution must balance electoral integrity with constitutional rights.

Body

  1. The ID vs. Unique ID Confusion
  • The Voter ID (EPIC) was designed as a functional ID to establish voting eligibility, while Aadhaar serves as a biometric Unique ID for identity verification.
  • The ECI’s 2008 claim that EPIC was “unique” was proven false when duplicate and fake voter registrations surfaced in Maharashtra and Bengal.
  • Linking Aadhaar could resolve duplication but blurs the distinction between eligibility (Voter ID) and identity (Aadhaar).
  1. Electoral Integrity Challenges
  • The Maharashtra elections revealed 40 lakh new voters registered in five months—more than the 32 lakh added in the previous five years, suggesting systemic fraud.
  • Duplicate Voter IDs and shared ID numbers across states undermine electoral fairness. Aadhaar linkage could curb this but requires 100% compliance to be effective.
  1. Legal and Privacy Concerns
  • Mandatory vs. Optional Aadhaar: The Supreme Court (2018) ruled that Aadhaar cannot be compulsory for welfare, but the ECI’s move risks making it de facto mandatory for voting.
  • Exclusion Risks: Marginalized groups lacking Aadhaar (due to documentation gaps or tech barriers) may be disenfranchised.
  • Data Privacy: Centralizing voter data with Aadhaar raises surveillance risks, despite the Puttaswamy judgment upholding privacy as a fundamental right.
  1. The Utilitarian Argument
  • As argued in the article, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar might have prioritized clean voter lists over privacy trade-offs, given that electoral sanctity is foundational to democracy.
  • However, a statutory guarantee (under oath) is needed to ensure no eligible voter is excluded.

Way Forward

  1. Legislative Clarity: Parliament must amend electoral laws to define the legal status of Aadhaar linkage, ensuring it doesn’t violate the right to vote.
  2. Phased Implementation: Pilot projects in high-fraud regions can test Aadhaar integration before nationwide rollout.
  3. Robust Grievance Redressal: Strengthen ECI’s mechanisms to address voter exclusion promptly.
  4. Public Awareness: Educate citizens on Aadhaar’s role in voting to prevent misinformation.

Conclusion

While Aadhaar linkage offers a technocratic fix to electoral fraud, it must not override constitutional safeguards. The ECI must ensure transparency, inclusivity, and judicial oversight to uphold both electoral integrity and democratic rights. As India modernizes its governance systems, the balance between efficiency and rights remains paramount.

Previous Year Linkage:

  • 2017 UPSC Mains (GS-II): “The Aadhaar debate revolves around the tension between welfare delivery and privacy. Discuss.”
  • 2020 UPSC Mains (GS-II): “Examine the role of technology in enhancing electoral transparency in India.”

 Introduction:

Public health and sanitation are intrinsically linked, forming the foundation of a nation’s well-being. Recognizing this, India launched the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) in 2014 and the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) in 2019, two transformative initiatives aimed at improving sanitation and water accessibility. These missions have not only enhanced health outcomes but also accelerated progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). By fostering behavioral change, community participation, and inter-ministerial convergence, India has set a global benchmark in rural sanitation and water security.

Body:

  1. Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) – A Public Health Revolution
  • Open Defecation Free (ODF) Status: By 2019, India achieved ODF status, 11 years ahead of the SDG 6.2 target, significantly reducing diarrheal deaths (WHO estimates 3 lakh deaths averted between 2014-2019).
  • Economic & Social Benefits:
    • A UNICEF (2017) study found that ODF households saved ₹50,000 annually in healthcare costs.
    • 93% of women reported feeling safer with household toilets, reducing gender-based vulnerabilities.
  • Environmental & Child Health Impact:
    • 60,000-70,000 child deaths prevented annually due to improved sanitation (Nature, 2024).
    • Groundwater contamination reduced by 12.7 times in ODF villages.
  1. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) – Ensuring Water Security
  • Health & Economic Gains:
    • Nobel Laureate Michael Kremer’s research suggests 30% reduction in infant mortality with safe drinking water.
    • 1.36 lakh under-5 child deaths preventable with universal tap coverage.
    • 5.5 crore hours saved daily for women, enabling greater economic participation.
  • Infrastructure & Empowerment:
    • Over 80% rural households now have tap water connections.
    • 2.48 million women trained as water testers, enhancing community-led governance.
  1. Convergence for Holistic Health Outcomes
  • Inter-Ministerial Collaboration: Integration of WASH (Water, Sanitation, Hygiene) with nutrition, education, and rural development has amplified health benefits.
  • Global Relevance: India’s community-led models, real-time monitoring dashboards, and GOBARdhan biogas plants serve as blueprints for the Global South.

Way Forward:

  • Strengthen Behavioral Change: Continuous awareness campaigns to sustain sanitation practices.
  • Leverage Technology: Expand IoT-based water quality monitoring and waste management systems.
  • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encourage corporate participation in rural WASH infrastructure.
  • Global Leadership: Share India’s best practices with developing nations to accelerate SDG progress.

Conclusion:

India’s sanitation and water revolutions under SBM and JJM demonstrate that health begins at home, not just in hospitals. By prioritizing preventive healthcare through WASH initiatives, India has not only improved public health but also set an example for sustainable development. As the nation progresses towards Viksit Bharat 2047, these missions will remain pivotal in ensuring equitable, resilient, and healthy communities.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linking:

  • 2021: “Examine the role of the ‘Swachh Bharat Mission’ in making India Open Defecation Free (ODF). Discuss its impact on public health.”
  • 2019: “Access to clean drinking water is a fundamental right. Analyze the challenges in achieving universal access to safe drinking water in India.”
  • 2017: “How far do you agree that the ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ has contributed to better health outcomes in rural India?”

These questions highlight UPSC’s recurring focus on sanitation, water security, and public health linkages, making this topic crucial for Mains preparation.

Introduction

Transparency and accountability are foundational pillars of a robust judiciary. However, recent data reveals that only 12.35% of High Court judges in India have disclosed their assets, raising concerns about judicial probity. The controversy surrounding undisclosed assets, such as the case involving Justice Yashwant Varma, underscores the need for greater openness. While the Supreme Court has taken steps toward full disclosure, High Courts lag behind, necessitating systemic reforms to reinforce public trust.

Body

  1. Importance of Judicial Transparency
  • Public Trust: Judges, as custodians of justice, must adhere to the highest ethical standards. Asset disclosure fosters confidence in their impartiality.
  • Preventing Corruption: Transparency deters conflicts of interest and illicit enrichment, ensuring judicial integrity.
  • Consistency with Democratic Principles: The Supreme Court, in Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms (2002), upheld that citizens have a right to know the assets of public representatives. The same logic applies to judges.
  1. Current Challenges
  • Low Compliance: Only 6 out of 25 High Courts have notable disclosure rates (e.g., Kerala at 93%, Himachal Pradesh at 91%), while others like Madras (5/65) and Chhattisgarh (1/16) lag.
  • Lack of Enforcement: Unlike the Supreme Court, where all 33 judges agreed to disclose assets, High Courts lack a binding mechanism.
  • Legal Ambiguity: The 1997 Resolution by the Supreme Court urged judges to declare assets voluntarily, but it lacks statutory backing.
  1. Need for Reform
  • Legislative Mandate: The Parliamentary Standing Committee (2023) recommended mandatory annual asset declarations for judges.
  • Digital Transparency: A centralized judicial portal (like the Supreme Court’s) should display all judges’ disclosures.
  • Ethical Enforcement: An independent oversight body (e.g., a Judicial Ethics Committee) could monitor compliance.

Way Forward

  • Legal Framework: Amend the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968, or introduce a new law mandating asset disclosure.
  • Peer Pressure & Leadership: Chief Justices of High Courts should lead by example, as seen in Kerala and Himachal Pradesh.
  • Public Awareness: Civil society and media must advocate for transparency, holding the judiciary accountable.

Conclusion

Judicial transparency is non-negotiable in a democracy. While the Supreme Court’s recent unanimous decision to disclose assets is commendable, High Courts must follow suit. Strengthening accountability mechanisms will not only align the judiciary with constitutional values but also enhance its credibility.

Previous Year Link:

  • 2019 GS-II (Governance): “Examine the role of transparency and accountability in strengthening judicial governance in India.” (Relevance: Both questions emphasize judicial accountability as a governance issue.)

Introduction

The Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025, recently passed by Parliament, seeks to reform the governance of waqf properties in India. While the government claims it will enhance transparency and efficiency, critics argue that it infringes upon the religious autonomy of Muslims. The Bill introduces structural changes in waqf administration, including greater government oversight, inclusion of non-Muslim members, and modifications to property dispute resolution mechanisms.

Key Changes & Their Implications

  1. Restriction on Waqf Dedication Rights
  • The Bill mandates that only those who have practised Islam for at least five years can dedicate property as waqf.
  • Criticism: This provision has been challenged as discriminatory against recent converts and violative of Article 14 (Right to Equality). Legal experts argue that religious rights should not be time-bound.
  1. Modification of ‘Waqf by User’ Doctrine
  • The doctrine previously recognized properties as waqf based on long-standing communal use, even without formal documentation.
  • The Bill grandfathers existing waqf-by-user properties but prevents new claims, potentially protecting government land from being classified as waqf.
  • Implication: While it prevents arbitrary claims, it may also undermine traditional community-managed properties.
  1. Increased Government Oversight
  • Survey Powers: The Bill shifts responsibility for surveying waqf properties from dedicated commissioners to District Collectors, raising concerns about bureaucratic delays.
  • Suo Motu Inquiries: The removal of Waqf Boards’ power to initiate suo motu inquiries weakens their autonomy.
  • Criticism: Critics argue that overburdened bureaucrats may lack the expertise to handle waqf disputes effectively.
  1. Inclusion of Non-Muslim Members
  • The Bill mandates at least two non-Muslim members in Central and State Waqf Boards and removes the requirement that the CEO must be Muslim.
  • Supporters argue this ensures diversity and prevents mismanagement.
  • Opponents contend it violates Article 26 (Right to Manage Religious Affairs), as waqf is an Islamic religious endowment.
  1. Financial Accountability Measures
  • A centralized digital registry for waqf properties is introduced to improve transparency.
  • Repeal of Limitation Act Exemption: Previously, Waqf Boards could reclaim encroached land without time limits. Now, the 12-year adverse possession rule applies, potentially legitimizing illegal occupations.

Criticism: Encroachment on Religious Autonomy?

  • Opposition parties and Muslim organizations argue that the Bill undermines the community’s constitutional right to self-governance.
  • The Supreme Court is set to hear petitions challenging the Bill on grounds of violating Articles 14, 25, and 26.
  • Critics question whether similar reforms will be imposed on Hindu temple trusts, highlighting asymmetric regulation of religious institutions.

Way Forward

  1. Judicial Scrutiny: The Supreme Court’s ruling on pending petitions will determine the Bill’s constitutional validity.
  2. Balancing Transparency & Autonomy: The government should ensure that reforms do not disproportionately interfere in religious matters while improving governance.
  3. Inclusive Consultations: Future amendments should involve stakeholders from the Muslim community to address concerns.
  4. Uniform Policy for All Religious Trusts: To ensure fairness, similar transparency measures should be introduced for Hindu, Sikh, and Christian trusts.

Conclusion

While the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025 aims to enhance accountability, its provisions risk eroding the Muslim community’s autonomy over religious endowments. A balanced approach, respecting constitutional safeguards while ensuring efficient management, is crucial for equitable governance of waqf properties in India.

Introduction

The recent launch of the NITI NCAER States Economic Forum portal marks a crucial step in enhancing transparency and data-driven policymaking in India’s fiscal federalism. By consolidating key macroeconomic and human development indicators—such as State revenues, literacy rates, employment data, and central fund devolution trends—the portal provides a structured framework to assess inter-State disparities. This initiative comes at a time when debates on fiscal federalism, revenue-sharing, and delimitation have intensified, particularly in southern States, making such data indispensable for informed policy discourse.

Body

  1. Significance of the Portal in Addressing Fiscal Federalism Challenges
  • Comparative Analysis: The portal aggregates data from credible sources (Census 2011, PLFS, RBI reports) and presents it in a State-wise comparative format, helping identify regional imbalances in development and resource allocation.
  • Evidence-Based Policy Debates: By offering objective data, it can anchor contentious issues like Finance Commission recommendations, GST compensation, and delimitation in facts rather than political rhetoric.
  • Transparency in Centre-State Relations: The platform can mitigate mistrust by providing States with a clear picture of fund devolution, tax revenues, and expenditure patterns, fostering accountability.
  1. Limitations and Challenges
  • Dependence on Existing Data: The portal relies on pre-existing datasets, which may have accuracy and timeliness issues, such as outdated Census figures or PLFS sampling errors.
  • Political Resistance: States may selectively use data to justify demands, while the Centre might face pressure to balance equity and efficiency in fund allocation.
  • Need for Regular Updates: To remain relevant, the portal must incorporate real-time data and expand its indicators (e.g., climate resilience, digital infrastructure).
  1. Potential for Cooperative Federalism
  • Guiding the Sixteenth Finance Commission: The portal can assist in rationalizing State-specific grants and determining fiscal devolution criteria.
  • Informed Delimitation Debate: By correlating population trends with economic contributions, it can help design a fair delimitation formula that addresses southern States’ concerns.
  • Encouraging Competitive Federalism: States can benchmark their performance on metrics like education, healthcare, and infrastructure, fostering healthy competition.

Way Forward

  1. Strengthening Data Ecosystems:
    • Integrate real-time data from Aadhaar-linked surveys, GST networks, and State finance departments.
    • Conduct a subnational GDP estimation exercise to better capture regional economic contributions.
  2. Institutionalizing Data-Driven Governance:
    • Establish a permanent inter-State council to review portal findings and recommend policy adjustments.
    • Use the platform for annual “State of States” reports, evaluating performance on key indicators.
  3. Balancing Equity and Efficiency:
    • The Sixteenth Finance Commission should use the portal to reward States for human development alongside tax efficiency.
    • Introduce outcome-based grants to incentivize reforms in lagging sectors like education and healthcare.
  4. Promoting Consensus on Delimitation:
    • Develop a multi-criteria delimitation formula that considers population, tax contributions, and development indices.

Conclusion

The NITI NCAER portal is a welcome step toward cooperative federalism, but its success hinges on sustained political engagement, data accuracy, and institutional follow-up. By transforming raw data into actionable insights, India can move towards a more equitable and efficient fiscal federal structure, ensuring that both prosperous and disadvantaged States progress in unison.

 Introduction

The rapid advancements in Artificial Intelligence (AI) have led to new forms of cybercrimes, particularly the generation and dissemination of AI-generated Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM). The first-ever International AI Safety Report 2025 by the UK’s AI Safety Institute highlights the growing risks of AI-generated CSAM. Countries like the UK are introducing new laws to criminalize AI tools that facilitate CSAM. India, with its increasing cybercrimes against children, must urgently update its legal framework to address this evolving threat.

Recent Developments and Global Concerns

  1. UK’s Legislative Approach:
    • The UK is introducing laws to criminalize the possession, creation, and distribution of AI tools capable of generating CSAM.
    • The shift from an “accused-centric” to a “tool-centric” approach ensures preventive action by targeting the means of crime rather than just the act.
  2. Global Reports Highlighting AI-Generated CSAM:
    • The World Economic Forum (2023) warned about generative AI creating hyper-realistic child exploitation imagery.
    • The Internet Watch Foundation (2024) reported a surge in AI-generated CSAM on the open web.
  3. India’s Rising Cybercrimes Against Children:
    • As per NCRB 2022, cybercrimes against children have increased significantly.
    • The National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP) recorded 1.94 lakh child pornography cases by April 2024.
    • India receives 69.05 lakh cyber tipline reports from the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC, USA), indicating a transnational threat.

India’s Legal Framework: Gaps and Challenges

While India has laws to combat child pornography, they are inadequate for AI-generated CSAM:

  1. Existing Laws:
    • Section 67B, IT Act 2000: Punishes publishing/transmitting CSAM in electronic form.
    • POCSO Act (Sections 13-15): Prohibits child pornography but does not explicitly cover AI-generated content.
    • Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (Sections 294-295): Penalizes obscene material but lacks AI-specific provisions.
  2. Key Gaps:
    • No explicit ban on AI tools used for generating CSAM.
    • Definitions of “child pornography” and “sexually explicit material” need expansion.
    • Intermediaries like VPNs and cloud services remain outside strict liability under IT Act.

Way Forward: Strengthening India’s Legal and Policy Framework

  1. Legislative Reforms:
    • Replace “child pornography” with “CSAM” in POCSO Act for broader coverage.
    • Amend Section 67B, IT Act to define “sexually explicit material” for real-time CSAM detection.
    • Expand the definition of “intermediary” to include VPNs, cloud services, and AI platforms under strict liability.
  2. Adopting International Best Practices:
    • Draw inspiration from UK’s AI-specific CSAM laws to criminalize possession and creation of AI tools for CSAM.
    • Advocate for the UN Draft Convention on Countering ICT for Criminal Purposes to ensure global cooperation.
  3. Policy and Enforcement Measures:
    • Expedite the Digital India Act 2023 to replace the outdated IT Act, incorporating AI-related CSAM provisions.
    • Strengthen cybercrime policing with AI-based detection tools and specialized training.
    • Enhance public-private partnerships with tech firms to detect and remove AI-generated CSAM proactively.

Conclusion

AI-generated CSAM poses a severe threat to child safety, requiring urgent legal and technological interventions. India must adopt a proactive, tool-centric approach like the UK, while modernizing its cyber laws. Strengthening international cooperation and leveraging AI for detection will be crucial in safeguarding children’s rights in the digital age.

Introduction

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 identifies Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) as an urgent national mission, aiming to ensure that every child attains basic reading and arithmetic skills by Grade 2. Initiatives like NIPUN Bharat have been launched to operationalize this goal. While progress has been made, challenges persist in translating policy into effective classroom practices.

Progress in FLN Implementation

  1. Policy Awareness & Training:
    • ASER 2024 reports that over 80% of rural schools received government directives on FLN activities, and 75% of teachers underwent in-person training.
    • Teachers demonstrate a clear understanding of FLN’s importance, indicating successful policy communication.
  2. Improved Learning Outcomes:
    • ASER data shows improved foundational learning levels, particularly in government schools—a first in two decades.
    • Increased focus on Teaching-Learning Materials (TLM) and activity-based learning marks a shift from rote methods.
  3. State-Level Initiatives:
    • Some states provide post-training support, including mentorship and monitoring, though effectiveness varies.

Challenges in FLN Implementation

  1. Teacher Support & Adaptation Gaps:
    • Many teachers lack post-training guidance and struggle to adapt FLN methods to diverse classroom settings (e.g., multi-grade or overcrowded classrooms).
    • TLM usage remains teacher-centric; students rarely engage directly due to logistical issues like storage and durability.
  2. Syllabus Completion Pressure:
    • Despite FLN’s emphasis, teachers prioritize syllabus completion due to traditional assessment systems.
    • Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) often remains exam-driven rather than formative.
  3. Inconsistent Monitoring & Compliance Focus:
    • Many states focus on data collection compliance rather than actual learning improvements.
    • Only a few states have officials demonstrating classroom activities, limiting practical adoption.

Way Forward

  1. Strengthening Teacher Support Systems:
    • Introduce regular mentoring programs and peer-learning platforms for teachers to share challenges and solutions.
    • Provide context-specific training, addressing issues like multi-grade classrooms and resource constraints.
  2. Enhancing TLM Accessibility & Usage:
    • Develop low-cost, durable TLMs and allocate dedicated storage spaces in classrooms.
    • Encourage student-centric TLM usage through structured guidelines and hands-on workshops.
  3. Reforming Assessment Mechanisms:
    • Shift from syllabus-driven evaluations to competency-based assessments aligned with FLN goals.
    • Use FLN assessment data to modify teaching strategies rather than just compliance reporting.
  4. Decentralized & Adaptive Implementation:
    • Empower block- and district-level officials to tailor FLN strategies based on local needs.
    • Promote community involvement to sustain FLN focus beyond school hours.

Conclusion

While NEP 2020 and NIPUN Bharat have brought FLN to the forefront, systemic challenges in teacher support, assessment rigidity, and resource allocation need addressing. A flexible, student-centered approach with robust monitoring can ensure that FLN becomes a reality for every child, fulfilling the vision of an equitable and literate India.

Introduction

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 marks a paradigm shift in India’s education system, aiming to replace colonial-era structures with an equitable, multidisciplinary, and future-ready framework. By focusing on access, equity, quality, affordability, and accountability, NEP 2020 seeks to address historical inequities while preparing students for a rapidly evolving global economy. However, its success hinges on overcoming structural, financial, and bureaucratic challenges.

Transformative Impact of NEP 2020

  1. Breaking Colonial Legacy & Promoting Indian Knowledge Systems
    • NEP 2020 decolonizes education by integrating Indian languages, traditions, and knowledge systems (IKS).
    • Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Yojana will provide textbooks in 22 Indian languages, reducing dependence on English.
  2. Inclusivity & Social Justice
    • Increased enrolment of marginalized groups: SC (50%), ST (75%), OBC (54%) since 2014-15.
    • Gender parity: Female enrolment rose by 38.8%, with 135% increase in PhDs and 43% representation in STEMM fields.
    • Reservation reforms like the CEI Act 2019 ensure fair faculty recruitment for SC/ST/OBC candidates.
  3. Holistic & Skill-Based Learning
    • Coding from middle school, Atal Tinkering Labs (10,000+), and multidisciplinary education foster innovation.
    • Focus on foundational literacy & numeracy through NIPUN Bharat.
  4. Higher Education Reforms
    • Research boost: India’s Global Innovation Index rank improved from 76 (2014) to 39 (2023).
    • 11 Indian universities in QS Top 500, up from none earlier.
    • Anusandhan-National Research Foundation to promote industry-academia collaboration.
  5. Digital & Infrastructure Push
    • PM SHRI Schools (upgraded govt. schools) and DIKSHA portal for digital learning.
    • Plans to add 50,000 more Atal Tinkering Labs with broadband connectivity.

Key Challenges in Implementation

  1. Funding & Resource Allocation
    • Despite 130% increase in per-child expenditure, states face fiscal constraints in implementing NEP.
  2. Bureaucratic & Political Resistance
    • Opposition from states on language policy (Hindi vs. regional languages).
    • Delays in regulatory reforms (e.g., replacing UGC with HECI).
  3. Teacher Training & Capacity Building
    • Shortage of trained teachers for new pedagogical approaches (multilingual, experiential learning).
  4. Digital Divide
    • Rural-urban gap in internet access and EdTech adoption.
  5. Cultural & Ideological Opposition
    • Resistance to Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) from sections favoring Western-centric education.

Way Forward

  1. Strengthening Federal Cooperation
    • Flexible implementation allowing states to adapt NEP to regional needs.
    • Increased central funding for states with budget constraints.
  2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)
    • Corporate CSR funds for digital infrastructure (e.g., smart classrooms, broadband in villages).
  3. Teacher Empowerment
    • National Mission for Mentoring (NMM) to train teachers in NEP-aligned pedagogy.
  4. Bridging the Digital Divide
    • Expansion of BharatNet and low-cost EdTech tools for rural schools.
  5. Regular Monitoring & Feedback Mechanism
    • Third-party audits to assess learning outcomes and policy effectiveness.
  6. Promoting Multilingualism Without Imposition
    • Voluntary adoption of three-language formula, with focus on mother tongue + English + choice-based language.

Conclusion

The NEP 2020 is a bold step towards decolonizing and democratizing education in India. While challenges like funding, bureaucratic delays, and digital disparities persist, a collaborative, outcome-driven approach can ensure its success. By leveraging technology, teacher training, and inclusive policies, India can achieve an education system that is rooted in its civilizational ethos yet globally competitive, fulfilling the vision of Viksit Bharat by 2047.

📍Syllabus Linkage:
• GS Paper II – Constitution: Fundamental Rights, Role of Judiciary
• GS Paper II – Governance: Transparency and Accountability
• GS Paper IV – Ethics in Public Administration, Integrity in Governance

Introduction

Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression, envisioned as a shield against tyranny. However, recent judicial pronouncements reflect a trend of content-based policing of speech, where courts prioritize sentiments over constitutional principles. This emerging judicial sensitivity, often misaligned with legal thresholds, risks transforming India’s free speech regime from protector of dissent to arbiter of decorum.

Body

  1. Recent Judicial Trends Undermining Free Speech
  • In May 2025, the Allahabad High Court refused to quash an FIR against a youth criticizing the Prime Minister post Operation Sindoor, citing that emotions toward constitutional authorities were hurt — a rationale that reorders citizen-state accountability.
  • The Karnataka High Court, during the Kamal Haasan ‘language’ controversy, suggested an apology to protect “public sentiments”, despite the absence of incitement or hate, setting a dangerous precedent for judicial validation of outrage.
  • In Ranveer Allahbadia’s podcast case, the judiciary questioned vulgar language, not by legality, but by subjective moral standards, disregarding the requirement for tangible harm under Article 19(2).
  • FIRs under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita sections 152 and 353(2) were upheld for calling a public leader “coward” — invoking public mischief and sovereignty, thereby weaponizing sedition-like laws for satire.
  1. Constitutional and Democratic Misreading
  • Article 19(2) restricts speech only on grounds such as public order, defamation, or national security — not offence or taste.
  • Judicial encouragement of apologies and investigation based on hurt sentiments has led to a “market for offence” — emboldening mobs and serial litigants.
  • Courts have often denied early quashing of such FIRs, causing “process as punishment” — chilling dissent even without convictions.
  1. Consequences for Democracy
  • From professors to podcasters, the judiciary’s moral scrutiny is creating a hierarchy of permissible expression.
  • The “chilling effect” doctrine, although acknowledged in Indian jurisprudence (e.g., Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, 2015), remains under-enforced, despite rising evidence of suppression of academic, artistic, and political dissent.

Way Forward

  1. Doctrine Reassertion: Judiciary must return to principle-based adjudication, focusing on legality over morality and rights over reactions.
  2. Clearer Thresholds: Interpretation of public order and defamation must be consistent with Supreme Court rulings (e.g., Subramanian Swamy v. Union of India, 2016).
  3. Quicker Judicial Review: High Courts must intervene early to quash frivolous FIRs, upholding due process and liberty.
  4. Legal Reforms: Repeal or amend vague provisions in BNS and other laws that are frequently misused to criminalize criticism.
  5. Judicial Training: Promote understanding of free speech jurisprudence, including global standards and ethics of disagreement.

Conclusion

Free speech is not meant to be polite or agreeable — it is the lifeblood of democracy. Courts, as guardians of the Constitution, must protect expression, not sentiments. When judges act as cultural supervisors rather than constitutional sentinels, the Republic risks regression. Upholding Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s vision, the judiciary must reinforce liberty — not as a license, but as a cornerstone of democratic dissent.

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • GS2 (2021): “Constitutional morality is rooted in the Constitution itself and is founded on the essential facets of dignity and freedom. Discuss.”
  • GS2 (2020): “Judiciary must be proactive in protecting Fundamental Rights. Critically examine.”
  • GS4 (2022): “How can public trust be maintained in institutions through transparency and ethical communication?”

Introduction:

India’s prisons are often overcrowded and under-resourced, with a large proportion of inmates being undertrial prisoners, many of whom are incarcerated not due to the gravity of their crimes but due to poverty and inability to pay bail or fines. Recognizing this, the Union Government launched the ‘Support to Poor Prisoners Scheme’ in May 2023 under the Ministry of Home Affairs, aimed at securing the release of such individuals. However, the scheme’s poor implementation across States and Union Territories raises concerns about governance efficiency and systemic neglect.

Body:

  1. Objectives of the Scheme:
  • Provide financial assistance (up to ₹40,000) to poor undertrials unable to furnish bail bonds or pay fines.
  • Ensure timely release of eligible prisoners to avoid prolonged incarceration due to economic hardship.
  • Reduce prison overcrowding, which as per the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) 2022, stands at over 130% of capacity.
  • Promote a humane and equitable criminal justice system, aligned with Article 21 of the Constitution (Right to life and personal liberty).
  1. Implementation Challenges:
  1. Non-utilisation of Funds:
    • Despite availability, many States/UTs have not drawn funds or identified eligible beneficiaries.
    • Reflects a lack of political will, administrative inertia, or awareness among prison authorities.
  2. Weak Inter-agency Coordination:
    • Delays in notifying the District Legal Services Authority (DLSA) when bail is granted.
    • Inconsistent functioning of District Level Empowered Committees, which are to process applications.
  3. Lack of Awareness and Sensitisation:
    • Many prisoners are unaware of their rights, and jail staff may lack training in SOP implementation.
  4. Stigma and Bureaucratic Hurdles:
    • Perception of undertrials as criminals results in lower prioritisation for welfare schemes.
    • Complex documentation or verification processes can discourage access to benefits.

Way Forward:

  1. State Accountability:
    • Regular reporting of utilisation data to the Union Ministry of Home Affairs with penalties for non-compliance.
  2. Strengthen Legal Aid Mechanisms:
    • Enhance capacity and training of DLSAs and prison legal aid clinics to proactively identify eligible inmates.
  3. Awareness Campaigns:
    • Launch awareness drives within jails in regional languages about the scheme and legal entitlements.
  4. Digitise and Automate Tracking:
    • Create a centralised portal for real-time tracking of cases where bail has been granted but not executed.
  5. Periodic Reviews by NHRC/SC Legal Services Committee:
    • Ensure oversight and third-party audits to flag and rectify implementation gaps.

Conclusion:

The Support to Poor Prisoners Scheme is a crucial step toward decriminalising poverty and ensuring access to justice for the marginalized. However, its success depends on active implementation, inter-agency synergy, and political commitment. Enabling timely release not only upholds constitutional values but also strengthens public faith in the justice system while reducing the burden on India’s overcrowded prisons.

Syllabus Mapping (GS Paper 2):

  • Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States.
  • Issues relating to development and management of social sectors/services relating to health, education, and human resources.
  • Criminal justice system reforms and governance mechanisms.

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS2): “Discuss the role of the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) in rendering free legal aid in India.”
  • UPSC Mains 2019 (GS2): “The effectiveness of the criminal justice system in India needs urgent reforms. Comment.”
  • UPSC Mains 2017 (GS2): “Examine the role of the civil services in the implementation of welfare schemes.”

Introduction:

The 2027 Census of India is set to become the first fully digital census, utilizing mobile applications and a centralized Census Management and Monitoring System (CMMS). This move is expected to modernize demographic data collection, enabling real-time processing and timely dissemination of data. With around 30 lakh enumerators targeting 33 crore households, the shift aims to improve accuracy, reduce delays, and enhance data-based governance for India’s growing population of over 1.4 billion.

Body:

  1. Significance of the Digital Census:
  1. Real-time Data Collection and Monitoring:
    • Mobile apps like Census 2021-Household and PE-Census 2021 enable live tracking of enumeration, reducing errors and duplication.
    • CMMS will track enumerator deployment, training, and field progress, ensuring transparency.
  2. Faster Processing and Publication:
    • Unlike past Censuses (e.g., 2011 data published in phased manner over a decade), instant digitization allows early policy interventions.
  3. Improved Policy Outcomes:
    • Timely demographic data enables better resource allocation, targeting for welfare schemes (e.g., Ayushman Bharat, PM Poshan), and urban planning.
  4. First-time Caste Enumeration Post-Independence:
    • Incorporation of caste data will aid in evaluating socio-economic inequalities, enabling targeted affirmative action.
  5. Environmental and Operational Efficiency:
    • Reduces paper use and logistical burdens, though hybrid (digital + paper) model is retained for low-connectivity areas.
  1. Challenges and Concerns:
  1. Digital Infrastructure and Connectivity:
    • Rural and remote areas may face internet outages, risking incomplete data capture.
  2. App Performance and Usability:
    • Past app ratings (3.5 stars) reflect login and data deletion issues, requiring robust software improvements.
  3. Data Privacy and Security Risks:
    • Sensitive data like caste and household details necessitate stringent cybersecurity protocols.
  4. Enumerator Training and Digital Literacy:
    • 30 lakh field personnel must be efficiently trained in mobile and digital tools to avoid errors.
  5. Institutional Capacity and Legal Safeguards:
    • Absence of a comprehensive Data Protection Law could erode trust among respondents.

Way Forward:

  • Pilot Testing and App Upgradation: Conduct extensive field pilots with feedback loops to improve digital tools before national rollout.
  • Hybrid Implementation: Ensure paper-based backups for low-connectivity areas to avoid exclusion.
  • Data Protection Framework: Expedite implementation of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 to ensure legal safeguards.
  • Capacity Building: Intensive training modules for enumerators across states with language and tech support.
  • Public Engagement: Build public awareness campaigns to foster trust and participation in the digital census.

Conclusion:

The Digital Census 2027 represents a transformative step in India’s governance framework, promising faster, more reliable, and inclusive data for policy planning. However, for it to succeed, India must bridge the digital divide, strengthen data protection, and ensure last-mile readiness. If executed effectively, it can become a model for other large democracies in the digital age.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II: Governance, e-Governance, Role of Civil Services, Government Policies and Interventions
  • GS Paper III: Science and Technology – Developments and Applications, ICT in Governance, Cybersecurity

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC GS II 2020: “Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance.” In this context, suggest reforms in the Civil Service.
  • UPSC GS II 2019: E-governance in public service delivery has improved transparency, accountability and citizen interface. Discuss.
  • UPSC GS III 2021: What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development of IT industries in major cities of India?

Introduction

The nature of public health is continuously evolving in response to economic growth, demographic shifts, and epidemiological transitions. In India, this evolution has taken the form of large-scale initiatives like Ayushman Bharat, aimed at universalising access to quality healthcare. However, public health systems must not be assessed only by infrastructure or coverage, but also by their ability to instil trust, provide continuity of care, and respond to emerging needs like mental health and non-communicable diseases (NCDs).

Body

  1. The Changing Landscape of Public Health
  • Public health challenges have expanded beyond infectious diseases to include:
    • NCDs (which account for >60% of global deaths),
    • Mental health issues,
    • Zoonotic diseases, and
    • Antimicrobial resistance.
  • Modern healthcare must be preventive, promotive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative.
  1. Response through Ayushman Bharat

The 2018 launch of Ayushman Bharat marks a paradigm shift in Indian health policy:

  • PM-JAY: World’s largest publicly funded health insurance scheme with ₹5 lakh coverage per family.
  • Ayushman Arogya Mandirs (HWCs): Deliver comprehensive care including NCD screening, mental health, palliative care, and health promotion at the grassroots level.
  • PM-ABHIM (2021): Upgrades public health infrastructure with a focus on surveillance, critical care, and health labs.
  1. Financial Protection and Infrastructure Enhancement
  • As per the National Health Accounts 2021–22, India’s out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPHE) is declining.
  • 1,75,338 AAMs operational with 350 crore consultations as of Nov 2024.
  • National Quality Assurance Standards (NQAS) adopted to improve health outcomes, modeled on ISQua benchmarks.
  1. Challenges in Public Trust and Service Experience
  • Trust deficit remains a key obstacle in utilising public healthcare despite expanded infrastructure.
  • Citizens prefer the private sector for cleaner facilities and consistent services.
  • Trust, as defined by WHO, impacts health-seeking behaviour and continuity of care.
  1. Gaps and Structural Blind Spots
  • Public facilities often lack emphasis on user experience, transparency, and responsive grievance mechanisms.
  • Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS) are outdated and infrastructure-centric.

Way Forward

  1. Update Standards: Prioritise NQAS and make it mandatory for all public facilities, replacing the outdated IPHS of 2007.
  2. Integrate User Experience: Include patient feedback as a metric in public health reporting; make such data publicly available to build accountability.
  3. Trust-Building Initiatives:
    • Increase community participation in health governance.
    • Improve doctor-patient ratios, sanitation, and timely care in public hospitals.
    • Conduct public awareness campaigns about the quality and availability of public health services.
  4. Health System Responsiveness:
    • Use data to anticipate emerging health threats.
    • Expand mental health and geriatric care infrastructure.
  5. Cross-sectoral Approach:
    • Collaborate with education, sanitation, and nutrition sectors to tackle health determinants holistically.

Conclusion

The Indian public health system stands at a transformative juncture. While Ayushman Bharat and similar schemes have laid a strong foundation for inclusive and comprehensive care, the journey toward a truly high-quality health system must focus equally on trust, responsiveness, and human-centered service delivery. India’s SDG 2030 goals and global health leadership aspirations can only be met if healthcare is not just accessible, but also reliable and valued by its citizens.

Link to Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • GS2 – 2023: “The public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that the Ayushman Bharat scheme will achieve the desired objectives?”
  • GS2 – 2020: “‘Health’ is a state subject. What are the challenges to cooperative federalism in public health management in India?”
  • GS2 – 2018: “Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India.”

Introduction

India’s economic growth has increased commercial disputes, necessitating efficient arbitration mechanisms. However, despite legislative reforms like the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Acts, India struggles to become a global arbitration hub due to neglect of arbitrator quality, over-reliance on retired judges, and procedural inefficiencies.

Challenges in India’s Arbitration Ecosystem

  1. Over-reliance on Retired Judges:
    • Courts and parties prefer ex-judges as arbitrators, assuming judicial experience ensures efficiency. However, Ministry of Finance (2024) guidelines highlight that such arbitrations often mimic court procedures, leading to delays and poorly reasoned awards.
    • Lack of Specialization: Arbitrators often lack technical expertise in sectors like infrastructure, finance, or international trade.
  2. Absence of Global Recognition:
    • Indian arbitrators are rarely appointed in international disputes (as noted by ex-CJI Chandrachud, 2024).
    • Cultural and Procedural Rigidity: Indian arbitrators often follow domestic court practices instead of global best practices like the UNCITRAL Model Law.
  3. Inadequate Training & Accreditation:
    • Unlike global hubs (Singapore, London), India lacks structured training programs for arbitrators in soft skills, cross-cultural deliberations, and award drafting.

Suggested Reforms

  1. Diversify Arbitrator Pool:
    • Include technical experts, corporate lawyers, and international arbitration specialists alongside retired judges.
    • Encourage young professionals through mentorship programs.
  2. Mandatory Training & Accreditation:
    • Introduce certification courses by institutions like ICADR, NALSAR, or SIAC.
    • Continuous skill development in procedural management, award writing, and financial analysis.
  3. Adopt Global Best Practices:
    • Promote fast-track arbitration and virtual hearings to reduce delays.
    • Encourage institutional arbitration over ad-hoc mechanisms.

 

Conclusion

For India to emerge as a global arbitration hub, arbitrator competence must be prioritized alongside legislative reforms. A specialized, trained, and diverse arbitrator pool will enhance efficiency, reduce judicial intervention, and boost investor confidence.

Link to Syllabus:

  • GS Paper II (Governance): Dispute redressal mechanisms and arbitration
  • GS Paper III (Economy): Infrastructure: Issues in dispute resolution and ease of doing business

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:

  • “The institutionalization of arbitration in India is still in its nascent stage despite legislative efforts.” Discuss the challenges and suggest reforms. (UPSC Mains 2020, GS II)
  • “Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanisms are crucial for reducing the burden on Indian courts.” Evaluate the effectiveness of arbitration in India. (UPSC Mains 2019, GS II)

 

Introduction:
In a move to enhance transparency and trust in electoral data, the Election Commission of India (ECI) has launched a new tech-driven voter turnout reporting system via its ECINET app. The initiative comes in response to Opposition concerns over delays and discrepancies in past voter turnout data and will be implemented ahead of the Bihar Assembly Elections 2025.

Body:

  1. Features of the New System:
  • Real-time updates every two hours via direct digital input by Presiding Officers at polling stations.
  • Data integrated automatically at the constituency level, reducing reliance on manual collation.
  • Offline data entry enabled in low-connectivity areas, synced when networks resume.
  • System integrated with the updated Voter Turnout App and the ECINET platform.
  1. Significance and Advantages:
  • Reduces 4–5 hour delays previously caused by manual reporting.
  • Increases transparency and credibility of voter turnout trends, especially post-election.
  • Enhances public confidence, particularly in a political climate with increasing scrutiny of institutions.
  • Supports data-driven decision-making and strengthens the ECI’s digital governance push.

III. Concerns and Challenges:

  • Digital divide may impact accurate data entry in remote areas.
  • Dependence on network connectivity, although offline functionality offers a safeguard.
  • Training needs for thousands of presiding officers and ground staff to ensure consistency.
  • Risk of technical glitches, which can delay or distort turnout updates if not monitored in real time.

Way Forward:

  • Comprehensive training programs for polling staff, including hands-on ECINET app usage.
  • Ensure network enhancement and device availability in remote polling booths.
  • Incorporate automated quality checks for anomaly detection.
  • Release post-election audit reports to validate voter turnout data against physical records.
  • Engage independent observers and civil society for oversight.

Conclusion:

The EC’s tech-enabled voter turnout system represents a milestone in electoral reform, aligning with India’s broader push for Digital Democracy. Its success, however, hinges on robust implementation, institutional capacity-building, and transparent monitoring. This reform can become a benchmark in restoring faith in the electoral process, provided digital equity and data integrity are ensured.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II:
    • Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act
    • Role of statutory bodies (Election Commission of India)
    • Transparency and accountability in governance
    • Use of e-governance in public service delivery

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • GS II 2022: “The role of the Election Commission of India in ensuring free and fair elections has come under scrutiny. Examine the challenges and suggest reforms.”
  • GS II 2020: “Examine the role of the Election Commission of India in the conduct of free and fair elections.”
  • GS II 2018: “E-governance is not only about the use of technology but also about strengthening accountability and transparency.” Discuss.
 

Introduction:

The decadal Population Census, mandated by the Census Act of 1948, is the backbone of India’s policy-making, resource allocation, and political representation. The 2021 Census—delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and political hesitations—is now scheduled to conclude by March 2027, marking the longest inter-censal gap in independent India’s history. This delay, coupled with major transitions like digital enumeration and caste data inclusion, raises significant governance, political, and ethical questions.

Body:

  1. Consequences of Census Delay:
  • Governance & Welfare Schemes:
    • Key social security schemes like PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana or Ayushman Bharat depend on updated demographic data.
    • Outdated population figures (based on 2011 Census) weaken targeting efficiency, leading to exclusion and leakages.
  • Federal Misrepresentation:
    • Delimitation based on 1971 population data persists.
    • Southern states with low population growth fear reduced Lok Sabha representation if 2027 data is used, leading to regional tensions.
  • Data Gaps in Planning:
    • Policies on healthcare, education, infrastructure, and urban planning lack accurate population baselines.
    • NITI Aayog’s SDG India Index (2023) also highlights data deficiencies due to this gap.
  1. Key Features and Challenges of 2027 Census:
  • Digital Enumeration:
    • First time via mobile apps and digital platforms – faster but raises cybersecurity and privacy concerns.
  • Caste Enumeration (First since 1931):
    • Helps refine affirmative action, quotas, and development indices.
    • But risks deepening caste identities and political fragmentation.
  • Delimitation Link:
    • As per Article 82 & 170, delimitation post-2026 will use the first Census thereafter – making 2027 Census pivotal for redrawing electoral boundaries.

Way Forward:

  • Transparency & Data Protection Laws: Enact robust data privacy legislation and ensure third-party audits for digital systems.
  • Stakeholder Consultation on Delimitation: Build a national consensus on delimitation criteria, balancing equity with efficiency.
  • Interim Surveys: Until 2027 data is finalized, strengthen NSSO, NFHS, and SECC-like surveys for planning.

Conclusion:

While the 2027 Census offers a technological leap and opportunity for deeper insights, the political timing and delayed implementation have triggered concerns of manipulation and misrepresentation. If managed transparently with stakeholder engagement and public trust, the Census can restore democratic legitimacy and data-driven governance.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS II: Governance – Government Policies & Interventions, E-Governance, Federalism, Representation of People’s Act
  • GS I: Indian Society – Population & Demographics

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC GS II 2020: “Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance.” In this context suggest reforms in Civil Service for strengthening democracy.
  • UPSC GS II 2019: Do you think that constitutionally mandated bodies like the Finance Commission and the NITI Aayog have strengthened cooperative federalism?

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