Q. "The Geneva Plastics Treaty negotiations have revealed a deep rift between two global blocs on tackling plastic pollution. Critically examine the positions of the High Ambition Coalition and the Like Minded Countries in light of India’s stance."
Introduction
- Plastic pollution has emerged as a global environmental crisis, with the UNEP (2022) estimating that 11 million tonnes of plastic enter the ocean annually, projected to nearly triple by 2040 if unaddressed.
- The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) initiated the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) process in 2022 to create a legally binding global plastics treaty by 2025, covering both land and marine plastic pollution.
- The 4th INC session in Geneva (2025) has highlighted a stark divide between countries advocating for production caps and those prioritising waste management.
Body
Key Blocs in Negotiations
- High Ambition Coalition (HAC)
- Members: ~80 countries including the EU, Norway, Rwanda.
- Core Position: Plastic pollution cannot be reduced without cutting or capping plastic and polymer production.
- Rationale: Waste management alone is insufficient given projected growth in global plastic production.
- Scientific Backing: OECD (2023) projects plastic use to triple by 2060, 2/3rd of which will be single-use plastics.
- Members: ~80 countries including the EU, Norway, Rwanda.
- Like Minded Countries (LMC)
- Members: Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, China, Cuba; India expressed solidarity.
- Core Position: Focus on waste management, recycling, and behavioural change rather than production cuts.
- Economic Argument: Production caps could harm trade, disrupt petrochemical-dependent economies, and fail to meet rising material needs in sectors like health, agriculture, and infrastructure.
- Members: Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, China, Cuba; India expressed solidarity.
India’s Position
- Aligns with LMC: Opposes production caps; advocates strengthening waste management infrastructure.
- Industry View: All India Plastic Manufacturers Association (2025) warns that caps on primary polymers could harm manufacturing and supply chains.
- Current Status: India generates ~3.47 million tonnes of plastic waste annually (CPCB 2023), with only ~60% recycled.
- Policy Measures: Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) framework, ban on identified single-use plastics (2022), Swachh Bharat Mission for waste segregation.
Underlying Geopolitical & Economic Context
- Shift in Production Hubs: Plastics manufacturing has moved from Europe to South and Southeast Asia, increasing the stakes for Asian economies.
- Trade Patterns: IEEFA (2024) shows Asia dominates global polymer trade — 11 major exporters and 18 importers.
- Market Trends: Petrochemical margins under pressure; China’s refining operates at only ~50% capacity.
Challenges in Reaching Consensus
- Negotiation Rule: Near-unanimous agreement required — no simple majority.
- US Position: Supports strong treaty but rejects production caps.
- Divergent Priorities: Developed nations push for caps to meet climate and pollution targets; developing nations emphasise economic growth and material needs.
Way Forward
- Hybrid Approach: Combine progressive production reduction targets with massive investment in waste management infrastructure.
- Technology Transfer: Support for developing nations through Global Environment Facility (GEF)-type funding for recycling technologies.
- Binding EPR Mechanisms: Hold producers accountable across value chains.
- Trade Incentives: Link market access to adherence with eco-friendly polymer production standards.
- Behavioural Change Campaigns: Public awareness to reduce single-use plastic demand.
Conclusion
The Geneva Plastics Treaty deadlock reflects a broader North–South divide on sustainable development priorities. While production cuts address root causes, developing economies need transitional pathways that safeguard livelihoods and industrial competitiveness. India’s stance underlines the importance of equitable burden-sharing, where global environmental commitments are balanced with developmental needs. A middle-ground treaty that marries production restraint with robust waste management is essential for a credible, implementable solution.
Link with UPSC Syllabus
- GS Paper III: Environmental Pollution & Degradation; Conservation; International Environmental Agreements
- GS Paper II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
- GS III, 2022: “Environment impact assessment studies are increasingly relying on economic cost-benefit analysis. Discuss with respect to India’s environmental governance framework.”
- GS II, 2021: “Discuss India’s position and strategy in climate change negotiations in light of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities.”
- GS III, 2019: “Plastic waste has become a major environmental challenge. Critically analyse India’s approach to addressing this issue.”
Q. Can the recent International Court of Justice (ICJ) advisory opinion compel rich nations to pay for historical emissions? Critically analyse its legal enforceability and implications for climate justice.
Introduction
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its July 2024 advisory opinion, reaffirmed that states have a legal obligation to mitigate climate change, reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and support vulnerable nations. While this ruling is a significant normative step towards climate justice, questions remain over its enforceability, particularly in compelling wealthy nations to pay for historical emissions.
Body
- Nature of the ICJ Ruling:
- The ruling is advisory, not binding under Article 65 of the ICJ Statute.
- It reaffirms obligations under international treaties like the Paris Agreement (2015), but lacks enforcement mechanisms.
- It echoes the “common but differentiated responsibilities” principle of the UNFCCC, but stops short of assigning liability.
- Historical Emissions and Legal Complexity:
- Proving direct causal linkage between a state’s emissions and specific climate-related harm remains scientifically and legally challenging.
- Attribution science, while evolving, cannot yet establish conclusive responsibility in most instances due to the complexity of climate systems.
- Sovereignty and Political Will:
- Major emitters like the S., China, and India are unlikely to dismantle their energy infrastructures based on legal pronouncements alone.
- Sovereignty often trumps global legal mandates, especially in energy and economic policies.
- Loss and Damage Fund – A Parallel Mechanism:
- At COP28, a Loss and Damage Fund was launched to assist climate-vulnerable nations.
- However, by 2025, only $700 million had been pledged against a projected $400 billion/year need (Source: UNFCCC 2024 Report).
- Wealthy nations have a track record of under-delivering on climate finance promises (e.g., $100 billion/year by 2020 commitment).
- Domestic Implications of the ICJ Ruling:
- Domestic courts may find legal grounding in the ruling to hold governments accountable under national laws.
- Vulnerable countries like Vanuatu and Tuvalu may use it to strengthen climate litigation
Way Forward
- Strengthening Domestic Legal Systems:
- Climate activists can utilise ICJ’s reasoning to argue for state accountability in public interest litigations.
- Countries must codify international commitments into national legislation.
- Technology and Development Focus:
- Developing countries should invest in clean energy innovation, not rely on reparations.
- Collaboration with countries like China, which leads in green technology exports, can accelerate just transitions.
- Reimagining Climate Finance:
- Climate finance must evolve beyond aid-based models towards mutually beneficial green investments and climate bonds.
Conclusion
The ICJ ruling is a moral and legal milestone, but it cannot compel rich nations to pay for historical emissions in the absence of enforceable mechanisms and political will. However, it empowers domestic courts, civil societies, and vulnerable nations to seek justice through national channels. Ultimately, developing countries must take ownership of their climate futures by pursuing sustainable development rather than waiting for reparations that may never materialize.
Linked UPSC Syllabus
GS Paper III
- Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
- International climate change agreements and frameworks
Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linked
- “Climate change is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?” (UPSC 2017)
- “What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded solid waste which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?” (UPSC 2018)
- “Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development.” (UPSC 2019)
Sources:
- International Court of Justice (ICJ) Advisory Opinion, July 2024
- UNFCCC Loss and Damage Fund Report, 2024
- The Hindu, July 2025
- Paris Agreement, UNFCCC
- IPCC AR6 Synthesis Report, 2023
- Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEFCC), Government of India
Q. Despite India achieving 50% installed electricity capacity from non-fossil fuel sources, the actual share of clean energy in electricity generation remains under 30%. Critically examine the reasons for this gap and suggest measures to improve clean energy utilisation.
Introduction
India has emerged as a global leader in renewable energy expansion, reaching 50% of its total installed electricity capacity (~484 GW as of June 30, 2025) from non-fossil fuel sources, five years ahead of its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. However, the actual share of clean energy in electricity supplied remains below 30%, exposing critical gaps between installed capacity and generation efficiency.
Body
- Installed Capacity vs. Actual Generation
- According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), non-fossil fuel capacity rose from 30% in 2014 to 50% in 2025.
- However, clean energy contribution to electricity generated has only increased from 17% (2014–15) to 28% (2024–25).
- The key factor behind this mismatch is the Capacity Utilisation Factor (CUF):
- Solar CUF: ~20%
- Wind CUF: 25–30%
- Coal CUF: ~60%
- Nuclear CUF: ~80%
- Lower CUF for renewables implies under-utilisation even when installed capacities are high.
- Grid Dependence and Storage Challenges
- India’s base load power (continuous supply) is still largely coal-dependent, which forms ~75% of the energy mix.
- Renewable energy, especially solar, is intermittent—most efficient during the day, with poor availability post-sunset.
- Absence of large-scale battery storage and flexible smart grids limits clean energy’s utility during peak evening hours.
- Lack of differential pricing (time-of-day tariffs) discourages efficient demand-side management.
- Structural and Policy Constraints
- Grid infrastructure is not yet designed for decentralised or hybrid generation.
- Land acquisition issues, inconsistent policies across states, and limited financial incentives slow integration of renewable energy.
- Discom losses and poor financial health of power utilities impact renewable purchase obligations (RPOs) compliance.
Way Forward
- Invest in grid flexibility: Smart grids, real-time monitoring, and demand-responsive infrastructure are essential.
- Promote hybrid renewable projects: Combining solar, wind, and hydro with battery storage can stabilise supply and maximise CUF.
- Time-of-Day tariffs: Introduce differential electricity pricing to incentivise use during peak solar hours.
- Boost battery storage and R&D: Focus on domestic battery manufacturing under PLI schemes and support energy innovation hubs.
- Policy consistency and RPO enforcement: Ensure stronger compliance mechanisms and incentivise clean energy procurement by discoms.
Conclusion
India’s achievement of 50% clean energy capacity marks a significant milestone in its energy transition journey. However, installed capacity alone is not sufficient to meet sustainable development goals. Bridging the gap between capacity and generation requires technological innovation, smart grid investments, and policy reforms. A systemic approach combining storage, hybrid models, and pricing reforms will be key to realising the full potential of clean energy in India.
Link to UPSC Mains Syllabus:
- GS Paper III:
- Infrastructure – Energy
- Environmental Conservation
- Climate Change and Renewable Energy
- Government Policies and Interventions
Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):
- 2022: What are the present challenges before power distribution sector in India?
- 2021: “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.” Discuss in the light of India’s experience.
- 2016: Discuss the role of energy efficiency and renewable energy in India’s energy policy.
Sources:
- Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) – Press Release (June 2025)
- Central Electricity Authority (CEA) Monthly Report (May 2025)
- The Hindu, July 2025 (Jacob Koshy)
- TERI & Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) Reports
Economic Survey 2024–25 – Energy and Infrastructure Chapters
Q. Discuss the rationale behind the revised policy of the Government of India regarding Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems in thermal power plants. Evaluate its implications for environmental protection, energy economics, and public health.
Introduction
Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems are essential air pollution control mechanisms installed in thermal power plants to reduce sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions. In 2015, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) mandated FGD units for all thermal plants. However, in 2024, the Government revised the norms, making FGD mandatory for only 11% of India’s 600 thermal units, citing scientific, environmental, and economic reasons.
Body
- Rationale for Revising the FGD Mandate
- Scientific Justification:
- According to MoEFCC (2024), SO₂ concentration levels in Indian cities are declining, with 490 out of 492 cities meeting the national ambient air quality standard of 50 µg/m³ (more stringent than Japan, EU, and Australia).
- Indian coal contains low sulphur (~0.5%) and high ash, contributing to relatively lower SO₂ emissions compared to global benchmarks.
- Health & Environmental Assessment:
- Recent studies (MoEFCC 2023) show no significant difference in PM2.5 levels between plants with and without FGD.
- Marginal improvement in air quality even if SO₂ emissions are completely eliminated, due to PM2.5 being influenced more by other sources like vehicular pollution and construction.
- Economic Cost-Benefit Analysis:
- Installation cost of FGD is ₹1.2 crore per MW. For the entire sector (~212 GW coal-based capacity), the capital cost would exceed ₹2.5 lakh crore.
- Given the limited benefit to air quality, this is considered an economically inefficient intervention.
- Implications of the Policy Shift
- Environmental Impact:
- Positive: Focuses resources on the most polluted regions (22% of units in critically polluted cities).
- Negative: May lead to localized SO₂ increases in regions not covered under the new norms.
- Public Health:
- May dilute long-term efforts to tackle air pollution.
- Risk of underestimating SO₂’s secondary effects, like formation of sulfate aerosols that contribute to PM2.5.
- Energy Economics:
- Reduced compliance burden may help control electricity tariffs, promoting energy affordability.
- Enhances financial viability for state-owned and smaller power producers.
Way Forward
- Adopt region-specific pollution control mandates based on air quality data and population vulnerability.
- Promote renewable energy transition and retrofitting older coal plants with cleaner technologies.
- Incentivize voluntary adoption of FGD through market-based mechanisms (like carbon credits).
- Strengthen real-time emission monitoring and public disclosure of pollution data.
Conclusion
The Government’s recalibration of the FGD mandate reflects a nuanced approach balancing environmental sustainability with economic pragmatism. However, given India’s growing burden of air pollution-related morbidity, the long-term success of such selective regulation will depend on continuous monitoring, technological innovation, and a strong push for cleaner energy alternatives.
Previous Year Questions Linkage (UPSC Mains):
- GS III (2021): “Describe the benefits of integrated pest management (IPM) in sustainable agriculture.” (Related to cost-effective environmental strategies)
- GS III (2020): “How and to what extent would micro-irrigation help in solving India’s water crisis?” (Evaluating policy impact on resource efficiency)
- GS III (2019): “Discuss the types of pollution and their impact on human life.” (Directly linked to SO₂ and PM2.5 health impacts)
Syllabus Linkage:
- GS Paper III: Environment – Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation
- GS Paper III: Infrastructure – Energy
- GS Paper II: Government Policies and Interventions
Sources:
- MoEFCC Policy Note, 2024
- CPCB Annual Air Quality Report, 2023
- Draft National Electricity Plan (CEA), 2023
- WHO Air Quality Guidelines
- Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) Analysis, 2023
Q. In light of the recent exemption of most coal-based thermal power plants from installing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units, critically examine the implications for environmental governance and public health in India. Should environmental standards vary by region within a country like India?
Introduction
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) recently exempted most coal-fired thermal power plants in India from the mandatory installation of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems—devices that remove Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) emissions from exhaust gases. This move departs from the original 2015 notification mandating FGDs across all units by 2017 to reduce air pollution and protect public health.
Body
Background and Policy Reversal
- As per CPCB data, India has about 180 coal-fired plants (approx. 600 units), but only 8% have installed FGDs, mostly NTPC units.
- The government’s 2015 mandate aimed to cut SO₂ levels to curb particulate matter formation and related health risks, such as respiratory diseases.
Government’s Justification for Exemption
- Technical and logistical constraints: Limited domestic vendors and high installation costs (₹5–6 crore/MW).
- Economic impact: FGDs could increase power tariffs by ₹0.60–₹0.75 per unit.
- COVID-19 disruptions delayed installations.
- A 2024 appraisal committee cited:
- Indian coal is low in sulphur.
- No significant difference in SO₂ levels between FGD and non-FGD plants.
- SO₂-derived sulphates suppress warming, potentially aiding India’s climate goals.
Concerns with the Exemption
- Regional disparity: Only plants within 10 km of NCR, cities with >1 million population, or pollution hotspots must now install FGDs by 2028, creating unequal environmental standards.
- Lack of public consultation: Major policy reversal was executed without a transparent debate or environmental impact review.
- Scientific contradiction:
- IPCC recognizes sulphates’ cooling effect, but does not recommend SO₂ pollution as a climate mitigation tool.
- WHO and Indian medical studies link SO₂ to chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Implications
- Public health risk: Downplaying SO₂ may endanger vulnerable populations in less-monitored areas.
- Undermining environmental federalism: Sets precedent for inconsistent enforcement of environmental laws.
- Violation of Paris Commitments: Weakens India’s global credibility on environmental governance and sustainable development.
Way Forward
- Re-evaluate FGD policy through independent expert review, factoring in both environmental and public health implications.
- Implement uniform environmental standards with exceptions only through scientifically justified, publicly reviewed processes.
- Promote domestic FGD technology development under schemes like Make in India and PLI.
- Encourage alternative SO₂ control measures such as using washed coal, better combustion technologies, and retrofitting old plants.
- Increase citizen awareness and public participation in environmental policy formulation, as mandated by EPA 1986 and Rio Principles.
Conclusion
While the exemption of FGD installation for most coal plants may reduce immediate economic burden, it undermines scientific environmental policymaking, risks regional inequality, and compromises public health. A climate-conscious India must not trade short-term economic gains for long-term environmental and health security. Uniform and scientifically backed national standards are essential for sustainable and inclusive development.
Syllabus Linkage
- GS Paper III: Environment – Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment
- GS Paper II: Government Policies and Interventions for Development
- GS Paper IV (Ethics): Public health ethics and environmental responsibility
Previous Year Questions Linkage
- UPSC CSE Mains 2022 (GS III): Discuss the challenges in implementing environmental protection laws in India.
- UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS III): Describe the benefits of the National Air Quality Index launched in 2015.
- UPSC CSE Mains 2018 (GS III): What are the impediments in disposing of e-waste in India?
Sources:
- CPCB Reports on SO₂ (2023–24)
- MoEFCC Notification (2015, 2024)
- IPCC AR6 Report (2023)
- Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
- WHO Guidelines on Air Quality (2021)
- Economic Survey 2024-25
Q. In light of the recent exemption of most coal-based thermal power plants from installing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units, critically examine the implications for environmental governance and public health in India. Should environmental standards vary by region within a country like India?
Introduction
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) recently exempted most coal-fired thermal power plants in India from the mandatory installation of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems—devices that remove Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) emissions from exhaust gases. This move departs from the original 2015 notification mandating FGDs across all units by 2017 to reduce air pollution and protect public health.
Body
Background and Policy Reversal
- As per CPCB data, India has about 180 coal-fired plants (approx. 600 units), but only 8% have installed FGDs, mostly NTPC units.
- The government’s 2015 mandate aimed to cut SO₂ levels to curb particulate matter formation and related health risks, such as respiratory diseases.
Government’s Justification for Exemption
- Technical and logistical constraints: Limited domestic vendors and high installation costs (₹5–6 crore/MW).
- Economic impact: FGDs could increase power tariffs by ₹0.60–₹0.75 per unit.
- COVID-19 disruptions delayed installations.
- A 2024 appraisal committee cited:
- Indian coal is low in sulphur.
- No significant difference in SO₂ levels between FGD and non-FGD plants.
- SO₂-derived sulphates suppress warming, potentially aiding India’s climate goals.
Concerns with the Exemption
- Regional disparity: Only plants within 10 km of NCR, cities with >1 million population, or pollution hotspots must now install FGDs by 2028, creating unequal environmental standards.
- Lack of public consultation: Major policy reversal was executed without a transparent debate or environmental impact review.
- Scientific contradiction:
- IPCC recognizes sulphates’ cooling effect, but does not recommend SO₂ pollution as a climate mitigation tool.
- WHO and Indian medical studies link SO₂ to chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Implications
- Public health risk: Downplaying SO₂ may endanger vulnerable populations in less-monitored areas.
- Undermining environmental federalism: Sets precedent for inconsistent enforcement of environmental laws.
- Violation of Paris Commitments: Weakens India’s global credibility on environmental governance and sustainable development.
Way Forward
- Re-evaluate FGD policy through independent expert review, factoring in both environmental and public health implications.
- Implement uniform environmental standards with exceptions only through scientifically justified, publicly reviewed processes.
- Promote domestic FGD technology development under schemes like Make in India and PLI.
- Encourage alternative SO₂ control measures such as using washed coal, better combustion technologies, and retrofitting old plants.
- Increase citizen awareness and public participation in environmental policy formulation, as mandated by EPA 1986 and Rio Principles.
Conclusion
While the exemption of FGD installation for most coal plants may reduce immediate economic burden, it undermines scientific environmental policymaking, risks regional inequality, and compromises public health. A climate-conscious India must not trade short-term economic gains for long-term environmental and health security. Uniform and scientifically backed national standards are essential for sustainable and inclusive development.
Syllabus Linkage
- GS Paper III: Environment – Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment
- GS Paper II: Government Policies and Interventions for Development
- GS Paper IV (Ethics): Public health ethics and environmental responsibility
Previous Year Questions Linkage
- UPSC CSE Mains 2022 (GS III): Discuss the challenges in implementing environmental protection laws in India.
- UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS III): Describe the benefits of the National Air Quality Index launched in 2015.
- UPSC CSE Mains 2018 (GS III): What are the impediments in disposing of e-waste in India?
Sources:
- CPCB Reports on SO₂ (2023–24)
- MoEFCC Notification (2015, 2024)
- IPCC AR6 Report (2023)
- Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
- WHO Guidelines on Air Quality (2021)
- Economic Survey 2024-25
Q. “The recent Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala highlights the urgent need for a comprehensive ‘One Health’ approach to prevent zoonotic spillovers.” Discuss the significance of a One Health framework in India’s disease prevention strategy and suggest suitable measures.
Introduction:
The Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic, highly lethal, and transmissible viral infection that poses recurring public health threats in India, especially in Kerala. The July 2025 outbreak, with two cases reported (including one fatality), has placed over 425 contacts under surveillance, demonstrating the disruptive potential of a single zoonotic case. The recurrence of such diseases underscores the urgent need for a ‘One Health’ approach, which integrates human, animal, and environmental health.
Body:
- Why Nipah Is a Serious Threat:
- High Mortality Rate: Between 40% and 75%, far deadlier than many other viral infections.
- Recurring Outbreaks: Recorded since 2001 (West Bengal) and regularly in Kerala since 2018.
- Limited Treatment Options: No specific antiviral or vaccine exists; current management is only supportive and preventive.
- Transmission and Environmental Triggers:
- Fruit bats (Pteropus) are natural reservoirs.
- Infection is believed to spread via:
- Consumption of bat-contaminated fruits.
- Human-to-human transmission through bodily fluids.
- Climate change and habitat destruction are increasing human-animal interactions, facilitating zoonotic spillovers.
- What Is the ‘One Health’ Approach?
- A multisectoral, transdisciplinary framework recognizing the interconnectedness of humans, animals, and ecosystems.
- Promoted by WHO, FAO, OIE, and UNEP.
- India’s National Expert Group on One Health (2021) aims to institutionalize this strategy.
Way Forward:
- Institutionalize One Health at National and State Levels:
- Integrate veterinary, forest, and human health departments.
- Empower One Health Cells under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
- Strengthen Disease Surveillance Systems:
- Expand Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) to monitor animal-human interfaces.
- Use AI and big data for early warning systems.
- Ecological Restoration:
- Regulate deforestation, urban sprawl, and mining in biodiversity hotspots.
- Promote community-based conservation to reduce contact with wildlife.
- Public Awareness and Risk Communication:
- Launch campaigns in high-risk districts on fruit hygiene, wildlife interaction, and reporting symptoms.
- Train local health workers to recognize zoonotic symptoms early.
- Invest in Research and Vaccine Development:
- Support ICMR and DBT in developing diagnostic kits, antivirals, and vaccines.
- Promote public-private partnerships for rapid-response bio labs.
Conclusion:
The Nipah virus outbreak is not merely a local health concern but a national warning. With environmental degradation and climate change escalating, the risk of zoonotic spillovers is growing. A robust One Health approach, with coordinated action across environmental, veterinary, and human health domains, is no longer optional—it is essential to ensure biosecurity, pandemic preparedness, and public health resilience.
Syllabus Linkage:
- GS Paper II: Issues relating to health, development and management of social sector services.
- GS Paper III: Conservation, environmental degradation, biodiversity and climate change; Science and Technology developments and their applications in health.
Previous Year Questions (PYQs):
- 2020 (GS III): “COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented disruption. Discuss the impact on health systems and the need for resilience.”
- 2021 (GS II): “‘The healthcare system in India faces numerous challenges.’ In light of recent outbreaks, suggest measures for improvement.”
Sources:
- Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India (2025)
- WHO Zoonotic Disease Factsheet
- National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) – One Health Bulletin
- Kerala Health Department Press Note – July 2025
- ICMR-NIV Studies on Nipah Virus (2023–24)
Q. “India’s Aluminium and Copper Vision 2047 documents reflect the strategic role of these metals in achieving a sustainable, self-reliant and energy-secure economy.” Discuss the key features, significance, and challenges of India’s vision for the non-ferrous metal sector.
Introduction:
India’s Aluminium and Copper Vision Documents 2047, launched in July 2025, represent a strategic industrial roadmap aligning with Viksit Bharat @2047. These initiatives aim to build a globally competitive, low-carbon, and resilient base metal ecosystem, critical for energy transition, green mobility, and modern infrastructure.
Body:
- Aluminium Vision 2047 – Key Highlights:
- Aims to scale aluminium production sixfold by 2047.
- Expand bauxite production to 150 million tonnes per annum (mtpa).
- Double aluminium recycling rate to enhance sustainability.
- Promote low-carbon technologies and raw material security through policy reforms.
- Recognizes aluminium’s critical role in:
- Electric mobility (EVs)
- Clean energy systems (solar, wind)
- Green infrastructure
As of 2025, India contributes only 6% of global aluminium production, despite being the second-largest producer – indicating untapped potential.
- Copper Vision 2047 – Key Objectives:
- Projects sixfold rise in domestic demand by 2047.
- Add 5 mtpa smelting and refining capacity by 2030.
- Enhance secondary refining and domestic recycling systems.
- Reduce import dependency by securing overseas mineral assets.
- Copper’s importance in:
- EVs, solar panels, wind turbines
- Infrastructure and urban electrification
- Battery technology
- Significance of These Visions:
- Support India’s Net-Zero by 2070 target.
- Align with Aatmanirbhar Bharat by reducing import dependence.
- Enable green and digital transitions.
- Foster job creation in mining, metallurgy, and green industries.
- Strengthen critical mineral security and economic resilience.
Way Forward:
- Strengthen recycling infrastructure through public-private investment in urban mining.
- Enforce sustainable mining practices with ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) benchmarks.
- Promote R&D in low-emission technologies for smelting and refining.
- Expand bilateral partnerships to secure copper and bauxite reserves globally.
- Implement single-window clearances and digitised land acquisition processes to boost project execution.
Conclusion:
The Aluminium and Copper Vision 2047 documents are critical enablers for India’s industrial, energy, and climate goals. By aligning sectoral growth with sustainability, technological innovation, and global competitiveness, these visions offer a blueprint for India’s transition towards a resilient, low-carbon, and resource-secure economy by mid-century. Timely implementation and regulatory coherence will be key to translating this vision into reality.
Syllabus Mapping:
- GS Paper III: Economic Development – Industrial growth and energy
- GS Paper III: Infrastructure – Energy and mineral resources
- GS Paper III: Environmental conservation and sustainable development
Relevant PYQs:
- GS III (2020): “How can biotechnology help to improve the living standards of farmers?”
- GS III (2016): “Give an account of the current status and the targets to be achieved pertaining to renewable energy sources in the country.”
Sources:
- Ministry of Mines, Government of India (2025)
- Vision Document on Aluminium and Copper (2025)
- Economic Survey 2024–25
- Vedanta Group and industry stakeholder statements
Q. Discuss the recent draft guidelines by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) on gold loan regulations and their implications on Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) and the gold loan market in India. Critically analyse the concerns raised by the RBI and the potential impact of the proposed norms on the sector.
Introduction:
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) on April 9, 2025, released draft guidelines aimed at regulating the gold loan market in India. These guidelines seek to address several concerns around the valuation, disbursement, and usage of loans against gold jewellery and ornaments. The growing popularity of gold loans, driven by rising demand, especially during economic uncertainty, has led to an increase in the volume of non-performing assets (NPAs) in the sector. These draft norms focus on standardising the regulatory framework, enhancing risk management, and reducing the occurrence of fraud, ensuring the protection of both lenders and borrowers.
Body:
- The Need for Regulatory Oversight:
The primary objective behind the RBI’s draft guidelines is to mitigate the risks arising from improper due diligence and incorrect valuation of gold, which have led to discrepancies in loan disbursements and the subsequent auctioning of gold. Reports have shown instances where the auction value of gold collateral was significantly lower than the initial loan amount, primarily due to inaccurate assessments of purity and weight. Such inconsistencies have raised concerns over the stability of the gold loan market. - Proposed Guidelines and Their Features:
The proposed norms bring in clarity regarding the valuation of gold, specifying that the metal must be valued against the price of 22-carat gold based on established benchmarks such as the Indian Bullion and Jewellers Association Ltd. or the spot price of gold in commodity exchanges regulated by SEBI. The guidelines also include specific restrictions on the maximum weight of gold and silver ornaments and coins that a borrower can pledge, ensuring that the risk exposure remains controlled. Moreover, the loan-to-value (LTV) ratio has been capped at 75%, a significant step towards regulating over-leveraging by borrowers. - Challenges Faced by Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs):
The draft guidelines could have substantial implications for the NBFC sector, as companies like Muthoot Finance and Manappuram Finance derive a large portion of their assets under management (AUMs) from gold loans. The introduction of stringent compliance requirements and the reduction of permissible loan limits might impact the business models of these companies. Shares of major NBFCs saw a decline following the announcement of these guidelines, underscoring the concerns regarding the financial strain that could result from compliance costs and a potential decrease in gold loan volumes. - Addressing Concerns Regarding Loan Utilisation and Risk Assessment:
The RBI’s emphasis on ensuring that gold loan proceeds are used strictly for the stated purpose, and not for personal consumption, is a step toward preventing borrowers from over-leveraging. By disallowing the re-pledging of collateral, the guidelines aim to address concerns related to multiple loans against the same asset, thus maintaining a check on borrower indebtedness. This will, in turn, enhance the quality of risk assessment and reduce default rates in the sector.
Way Forward:
While the RBI’s draft guidelines have been welcomed by industry leaders for their potential to improve the transparency and efficiency of the gold loan market, it is crucial that the regulator closely monitors the impact of these norms on the NBFC sector. As compliance costs rise, especially for smaller players, it will be essential to strike a balance between regulatory oversight and the flexibility required for industry growth. Additionally, the regulator must consider the potential for technological innovations, such as blockchain and AI-driven valuation methods, to improve the efficiency and accuracy of gold loan assessments.
There should also be a focus on educating both lenders and borrowers about the importance of accurate valuations and proper loan usage to foster a more sustainable gold loan market. Periodic reviews and adjustments of the guidelines, based on feedback from industry stakeholders, will be necessary to ensure that the sector continues to grow without stifling innovation or market access.
Conclusion:
The RBI’s draft guidelines on gold loans are a significant step towards addressing the challenges of inadequate valuation, improper loan disbursal, and misuse of gold collateral. While the regulations aim to improve transparency and reduce risks, they also pose challenges to NBFCs, which dominate the gold loan market. A balanced approach, along with continuous industry feedback, will be crucial to ensure the stability and growth of the sector, while safeguarding the interests of both lenders and borrowers.
The implementation of these norms could have long-term positive impacts on the gold loan sector if executed judiciously, ensuring a more resilient financial ecosystem. It is, however, essential to review similar issues from previous years’ questions on Financial Sector Reforms and Regulation of NBFCs to draw comparisons and lessons from earlier regulatory interventions in the financial sector.
Link to Previous Year’s Questions:
- 2018 Mains Question: “Discuss the role of the RBI in regulating non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) and the challenges faced in the evolving financial ecosystem.”
- 2019 Mains Question: “What are the regulatory challenges posed by the increasing popularity of gold-backed loans? How can the RBI address these concerns?”
Q. India's delayed ratification of the 'High Seas Treaty' highlights the complex intersection between national sovereignty, environmental commitments, and resource equity. Critically examine India’s position on the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Treaty and suggest the way forward.
Introduction:
The Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement—popularly known as the High Seas Treaty—was adopted in 2023 to regulate and conserve marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdictions. India signed the treaty in September 2024, but as of June 2025, it has not ratified it. The treaty will enter into legal force once 60 countries ratify it; currently, 49 countries have done so.
India’s hesitation reflects challenges related to legal reform, equitable resource sharing, and balancing conservation with strategic interests in the deep-sea domain.
Body:
- India’s Current Stance:
- Pending Ratification: India has signed but not ratified the treaty due to the need for amending domestic laws, notably the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
- Government Position: Union Minister Dr. Jitendra Singh stated at the 2025 UN Ocean Conference in Nice that India is “in the process of ratifying” the agreement, post-Parliamentary discussions during the Monsoon Session.
- Concerns Influencing India’s Delay:
- Equitable Resource Sharing: India has raised concerns over unresolved mechanisms to share marine genetic resources (MGRs) from the high seas, fearing inequitable benefit distribution.
- Technological Readiness and Strategic Autonomy: India’s deep-sea mission Samudrayaan (slated for 2026) signifies a push toward blue economy leadership, making it cautious of overregulation.
- Legal Compatibility: Ratification requires legislative amendments, creating institutional and procedural bottlenecks.
- India’s Positive Contributions to Ocean Governance:
- Blue Economy Investments: India has committed over $80 billion toward sustainable marine development, including fisheries, ports, and marine research.
- Plastic Ban and Global Advocacy: India has implemented a nationwide single-use plastic ban and advocated a Global Plastics Treaty.
- Digital Ocean Data Sharing: Launched SAHAV, a digital ocean data portal to aid marine governance and regional cooperation.
Way Forward:
- Legal Reform Acceleration:
- Fast-track amendments to the Biological Diversity Act through stakeholder consultations to align with BBNJ provisions.
- Push for Equitable Benefit-Sharing Framework:
- Lead negotiations to ensure fair distribution of marine genetic resources, especially for developing countries.
- Enhance Deep-Sea Research Capacity:
- Scale up missions like Samudrayaan to ensure India’s sovereign capability in high seas exploration and conservation.
- Strengthen Regional Alliances:
- Collaborate with Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and Global South countries to shape norms in line with developmental needs.
- Ratify with Strategic Safeguards:
- Ratify the treaty with interpretative declarations preserving India’s sovereign maritime interests while upholding conservation principles.
Conclusion:
India’s cautious approach to the High Seas Treaty reflects a balancing act between global environmental responsibility and national strategic interests. While the treaty presents an opportunity to lead in ocean governance, ratification must be accompanied by robust legal safeguards and institutional readiness. India’s vision for a resilient Blue Economy and responsible ocean stewardship will gain greater global legitimacy through timely and constructive participation in the BBNJ framework.
Syllabus Linkage:
- GS Paper II: International Agreements involving India’s interests; Bilateral, Regional & Global Groupings
- GS Paper III: Environment – Conservation, Biodiversity, and Environmental Pollution; Blue Economy; Ocean Governance
Relevant Previous Year Questions:
- GS III (2023): What are the key features of the National Maritime Policy and how does it align with India’s Blue Economy goals?
- GS II (2020): “Diplomacy and international politics go hand in hand with environmental issues.” Discuss with reference to India’s role in international environmental negotiations.
- GS III (2018): How does India’s participation in the UN Conventions on Biodiversity reflect its commitment to global environmental governance?
Q. "India is the world’s biggest plastic polluter, with systemic gaps in waste management and data reporting." Critically examine this statement in light of recent studies and judicial interventions. Also, suggest measures to strengthen India’s plastic waste management framework.
Introduction:
A recent study in Nature highlights India as the largest plastic polluter, releasing 9.3 million tonnes annually (~20% of global emissions). Despite claims of 95% waste collection coverage, discrepancies in data, lack of rural reporting, and mismanagement indicate severe underestimation.
Challenges in Plastic Waste Management:
- Data Gaps & Underestimation:
- CPCB reports rely on municipal data, excluding rural waste, informal recycling, and open burning.
- The study estimates 0.54 kg/capita/day plastic waste, far higher than India’s official 0.12 kg/capita/day.
- Link to Syllabus: Environmental governance, policy gaps (GS III).
- PYQ Reference: 2023 (GS III): “Discuss the challenges of urban solid waste management in India.”
- Ineffective Waste Infrastructure:
- 10:1 ratio of dumpsites to landfills shows poor containment.
- Himalayan States face plastic accumulation due to weak local governance.
- Link to Syllabus: Sustainable development, pollution control.
- Judicial Interventions & Compliance Issues:
- Supreme Court’s “continuing mandamus” (Vellore tanneries case) stresses polluter pays principle and remediation.
- Courts emphasize EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) but implementation remains weak.
- PYQ Reference: 2021 (GS III): “Explain the ‘polluter pays’ principle with suitable examples.”
Measures for Improvement:
- Transparent Data Systems:
- Third-party audits, geotagged waste infrastructure, and rural waste mapping.
- Strengthening EPR:
- Mandatory PIBO (Producers, Importers, Brand Owners) kiosks for segregated waste collection.
- Judicial & Policy Enforcement:
- Time-bound compliance via “continuing mandamus” for waste cases.
- Link to Syllabus: Environmental laws, judicial activism (GS II & III).
Conclusion:
India must leverage technology, stricter EPR enforcement, and judicial oversight to combat plastic pollution. A data-driven, accountable framework is crucial for sustainable waste management.
Syllabus Linkage & Previous Year Questions (PYQs):
- GS III (Environment): Pollution, waste management, sustainable development.
- 2022: “Discuss the role of extended producer responsibility in plastic waste management.”
- 2020: “What are the challenges in India’s waste management system? Suggest solutions.”
- GS II (Governance): Judicial interventions in environmental protection.
- 2019: “Critically examine the Supreme Court’s role in environmental jurisprudence.”
Q138. “Examine the role of tree plantatio
Q. “Addressing citizens’ trust deficit in water quality is crucial for reducing plastic dependence and achieving sustainable urban development.” In light of recent initiatives, critically examine the challenges and solutions in ensuring access to safe drinking water in Indian cities.
Introduction
Access to safe drinking water is a fundamental right linked to health, dignity, and environmental sustainability. However, urban India faces a trust deficit in public water sources, leading to a growing reliance on single-use plastic bottled water, exacerbating both environmental and social costs. As cities like Bengaluru innovate to become global knowledge hubs, the challenge of balancing citizen safety, environmental concerns, and technological interventions becomes pressing.
Body
- The Bottled Water Problem: A Global and Local Concern
- According to a 2023 UN University Report, over 500 billion litres of bottled water are sold annually worldwide.
- In India, with growing urban anxieties about water quality, bottled water sales are expected to rise to ₹403 billion by 2026 (Statista).
- Less than 10% of plastics are recycled globally; over 11 million tonnes leak into rivers and seas annually (UNEP, 2023).
- Root of the Crisis: Trust in Urban Water Quality
- In a study conducted in Bengaluru (2024) by the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) with support from the UK High Commission, many samples from restaurants failed BIS drinking water standards, justifying public skepticism.
- Citizens choose bottled water not for luxury, but due to lack of verified, real-time data on water quality at public places.
- Environmental and Social Implications
- The use of single-use plastic bottles contributes to urban waste burdens, pollutes public spaces, and burdens solid waste management systems.
- Microplastics have now been detected in human bloodstreams (WHO 2022), showcasing health hazards beyond mere pollution.
- Technological and Policy Solutions
- Emergence of smart filters with real-time maintenance and quality tracking is transforming household water consumption.
- Bengaluru’s model suggests replicating such tech solutions outside homes — in malls, offices, restaurants — with visible indicators of water safety.
- Central Government’s Jal Jeevan Mission, while focused on rural households, can serve as a framework for urban adaptation, with focus on service quality, not just infrastructure.
Way Forward
- Mandate water quality displays: Like calorie counts in restaurants, filtered water points in urban areas should show last service dates and test results.
- Urban Water Quality Dashboard: A public interface updated by municipal authorities and supported by IoT-based monitoring.
- Expand CSR and international partnerships: As seen in the UK-India collaboration, diplomatic and corporate engagement can scale up access to technology and public confidence.
- Behavioral Nudges: Awareness campaigns that showcase the benefits of switching from bottled water when safe alternatives exist can influence consumption patterns.
Conclusion
Cities like Bengaluru, known for tech leadership, must now innovate to restore trust in public utilities and lead climate-conscious urban reforms. Reducing dependence on bottled water is not just about eliminating plastic but about rebuilding faith in public infrastructure and ensuring inclusive, sustainable development. Safe water access, backed by transparent data, is not only a service — it is an enabler of environmental justice.
Syllabus Linkage:
GS Paper II – Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors
GS Paper III – Environmental conservation, pollution, sustainable development
Previous Year Questions:
- Q. Urbanisation and solid waste management present a serious challenge in India. Discuss. (UPSC CSE Mains 2014)
- Q. What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded solid waste that is continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (UPSC CSE Mains 2018)
Q. "India’s air pollution crisis is a persistent challenge requiring systemic solutions. Discuss the key issues in India’s current approach to tackling air pollution and suggest a way forward."
Introduction
India’s air pollution crisis is not just a seasonal problem but a year-round public health emergency. With cities frequently topping global pollution charts, the economic and health costs are staggering. While initiatives like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), Bharat Stage VI norms, and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) show intent, implementation remains fragmented. A structural, data-driven, and governance-oriented approach is needed for lasting change.
Key Issues in India’s Current Approach
- Over-Reliance on Technical Solutions
- Air pollution is often treated as a technical issue rather than a governance challenge tied to urban planning, economic policies, and behavioural norms.
- While scientific monitoring is crucial, ground-level implementation by municipal authorities, engineers, and community leaders remains weak.
- Misaligned Funding and Metrics
- NCAP struggles with fund utilization (only 60% used between 2019-2023) due to a lack of local capacity and misaligned priorities.
- Ambient air quality data is weather-dependent, masking real progress from interventions like PMUY or waste-burning controls.
- Need for activity-based metrics (e.g., diesel buses phased out, stoves replaced) instead of just pollution concentration levels.
- Data Gaps and Elite Capture
- Lack of high-resolution, open-source data on pollution sources (construction, traffic, waste burning) hinders targeted action.
- Risk of urban-centric solutions (smog towers, AI dashboards) overshadowing rural and informal sector emissions (biomass burning, outdated industries).
- Inadequate Financial Commitment
- Compared to China’s ₹22 lakh crore investment in clean air, India’s NCAP budget is less than 1% of that.
- While allied schemes (FAME-II, Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban) contribute, integrated financing is missing.
Way Forward
- Phased, Data-Driven Implementation
- Phase I: Develop local emissions profiles to identify major pollution sources.
- Phase II: Link NCAP funding to targeted actions (e.g., retrofitting industries, promoting electric buses).
- Phase III: Track emission reductions, not just air quality readings, for accountability.
- Strengthening Local Governance
- Empower municipal bodies with technical and financial resources to enforce pollution control measures.
- Integrate air quality management into urban planning and transport policies.
- Balanced Technological Adoption
- Avoid “Western trap” of high-tech solutions without fixing basics (e.g., waste burning, industrial emissions).
- Separate funding for research (long-term) and on-ground interventions (short-term).
- Inclusive and Federal Approach
- Learn from global models (China’s coal phase-out, Brazil’s community waste systems) but tailor solutions to India’s informal economy and federal structure.
- Ensure rural and semi-urban areas are not neglected in clean air policies.
- Public Awareness and Behavioral Change
- Promote clean energy adoption (e.g., LPG, electric vehicles) through incentives.
- Encourage community participation in monitoring and mitigation efforts.
Conclusion
India’s clean air future depends not on dashboards or isolated schemes, but on strong governance, data-backed policies, and grassroots action. By realigning metrics, empowering local bodies, and adopting a mission-mode approach, India can transition from reactive measures to sustainable solutions. Clean air must be a fundamental right, not a privilege—achievable only through coordination, political will, and public participation.
Q. Discuss the dual role of aerosols in India’s climate system, highlighting their cooling effect and implications for future climate policy. How should India balance air pollution control with climate change mitigation?
Introduction
India faces a complex challenge in managing air pollution and climate change. While greenhouse gases (GHGs) like CO₂ drive global warming, aerosols—tiny particulate pollutants—have a masking effect by scattering sunlight and inducing cooling. However, reducing aerosol emissions without corresponding cuts in GHGs could accelerate warming, posing risks to vulnerable populations.
Aerosols and Their Dual Role
- Cooling Effect:
- Aerosols (e.g., sulphates, nitrates) reflect solar radiation, offsetting some GHG-induced warming.
- Studies estimate that aerosols have reduced India’s warming by ~1.5°C, masking a potential 2°C rise.
- Regions with high aerosol loads (e.g., Indo-Gangetic plains) experience lower warming trends due to this “masking effect.”
- Impact on Rainfall:
- Aerosols disrupt the hydrological cycle, weakening monsoon rainfall by altering atmospheric circulation.
- Uneven aerosol distribution (e.g., higher in the Northern Hemisphere) affects regional climate patterns.
- Health vs. Climate Trade-off:
- While aerosols cool the climate, they cause severe respiratory diseases and smog.
- Rapid aerosol reduction (e.g., via stricter air quality norms) may unmask hidden warming, increasing heat stress.
Challenges for India
- Thermal Power Dependency: Coal-fired plants (70% of India’s electricity) emit both GHGs and sulphate aerosols.
- Regional Variability: Aerosol impacts are location-specific, making uniform policies difficult.
- Short-term vs. Long-term Effects: Cutting aerosols may lead to immediate warming but could improve rainfall patterns.
Way Forward
- Integrated Pollution-Climate Policies:
- Link air quality improvements with GHG reduction (e.g., transitioning to renewables, carbon capture).
- Strengthen sulphur scrubbers in thermal plants to reduce SO₂ emissions without abrupt aerosol cuts.
- Heat Action Plans (HAPs):
- Upgrade urban HAPs to address rising temperatures, focusing on vulnerable groups.
- Implement long-term cooling strategies (green roofs, water conservation).
- Research and Monitoring:
- Invest in climate models to predict regional aerosol impacts.
- Study cross-border effects (e.g., China’s aerosol cuts influencing Indian monsoons).
- Global Cooperation:
- Align with international climate agreements while advocating for equitable aerosol management.
- Public Health Priority:
- Despite warming risks, reducing air pollution remains critical for health; policies must prioritize co-benefits (clean energy, reduced emissions).
Conclusion
India must adopt a nuanced approach to aerosol management, recognizing its temporary cooling benefits while accelerating GHG mitigation. Policymakers should prioritize health, climate resilience, and sustainable development, ensuring that air pollution control does not inadvertently exacerbate warming. A balanced strategy, combining science-backed policies and adaptive measures, will be key to securing India’s climate future.
Q. "Active mobility is crucial for sustainable urban development in India, yet it faces significant barriers. Discuss the importance of active mobility, the challenges in its adoption, and suggest measures to promote it effectively."
Introduction:
Active mobility, encompassing non-motorized transport like walking and cycling, is gaining attention in India due to rising urban congestion, pollution, and pedestrian fatalities. While initiatives like Karnataka’s Active Mobility Bill (2022) and Delhi’s cycling tracks reflect policy recognition, systemic challenges such as inadequate infrastructure and socio-cultural biases hinder progress. Promoting active mobility aligns with global sustainability goals, public health benefits, and India’s commitments under the Paris Agreement.
Body:
Significance of Active Mobility:
- Environmental Benefits: Reduces carbon emissions (12% of India’s transport emissions) and air pollution.
- Health Advantages: Lowers risks of chronic diseases, improves mental well-being, and reduces healthcare burdens.
- Economic Gains: Cuts household fuel expenses and boosts local commerce via pedestrian-friendly streets.
- Policy Alignment: Supported by Smart Cities Mission, National Transit-Oriented Development Policy, and global frameworks like Vision Zero (EU).
Challenges in Adoption:
- Infrastructure Deficits: 85% of Indian roads lack safe walking/cycling lanes (2021 data).
- Social Perceptions: Cars symbolize status; 12,000+ cars sold daily (SIAM data) exacerbate congestion.
- Weather and Distance: Extreme climates and urban sprawl deter non-motorized travel.
- Weak Enforcement: Motor vehicles encroach on pedestrian lanes with minimal penalties.
Global Examples:
- Netherlands: 35,000+ km of cycling lanes.
- Germany: Berlin Mobility Act mandates pedestrian-first urban design.
- EU: Vision Zero prioritizes cyclist/pedestrian safety through traffic reforms.
Way Forward:
- Infrastructure Expansion: Dedicated cycling lanes (as in Pune’s 300-km network) and shaded walkways.
- Awareness Campaigns: Promote cycling/walking as status-neutral, healthy choices.
- Policy Integration: Enforce stricter traffic laws (e.g., Karnataka’s Bill) and link active mobility to AMRUT 2.0.
- Public Transport Synergy: Enhance last-mile connectivity via bicycle-sharing (e.g., Kochi’s PBS system).
Conclusion:
Active mobility is not just a transport alternative but a necessity for equitable, climate-resilient cities. By learning from global models and addressing infrastructural and cultural barriers, India can transform its urban landscapes while achieving SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities).
Previous Year Link:
- 2023 GS III (Q13): “Discuss the role of urban transport in sustainable development.”
- 2021 GS III (Q6): “Examine the challenges of urban mobility in India and suggest solutions.”
Q. The imposition of a global carbon tax on the shipping industry by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) marks a significant step towards climate action. Critically examine the potential and limitations of this initiative in addressing global maritime emissions and equity concerns of developing nations.
Introduction
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO)’s recent decision to impose a global carbon tax on the shipping industry, supported by 63 countries including India, is a landmark development in global climate governance. For the first time, an entire industry faces a uniform carbon pricing mechanism, aimed at curbing emissions and promoting the shift to cleaner fuels.
Significance of the Carbon Tax on Shipping
- Sectoral Breakthrough: Shipping, accounting for ~3% of global emissions, has long evaded international climate regulations. A binding carbon tax is the first of its kind to tackle industry-wide emissions.
- Polluter Pays Principle: The tax operationalises the polluter pays principle by making ship operators accountable for their emissions starting 2028.
- Revenue Generation: Projected to raise $40 billion by 2030, this can be reinvested in decarbonising maritime infrastructure and innovation in low-emission technologies.
- Global Climate Governance: The multilateral consensus — despite opposition from oil-rich countries — reflects a growing alignment on industrial decarbonisation.
Limitations and Criticisms
- Equity and Climate Justice Concerns:
- Developing countries, especially small island nations like Tuvalu, pushed for a share of the revenues to fund broader climate finance.
- Their demand was rejected, raising questions on fairness and the North-South divide in climate negotiations.
- Limited Emission Reduction Impact:
- The tax is expected to cut shipping emissions by only 10% by 2030, far below the IMO’s stated target of 20% or more.
- Design and Transparency Issues:
- Criticism from the Global South about lack of transparency and inadequate incentives for cleaner fuel adoption undermines the initiative’s credibility.
- U.S. Absence:
- The non-participation of the U.S., a major global power, dilutes the initiative’s universality and potential impact.
Way Forward
- Inclusive Revenue Allocation: Part of the revenues should be redirected to support adaptation and mitigation in vulnerable nations.
- Progressive Taxation Design: Gradually increasing the carbon price and ensuring fair burden-sharing across shipping companies is crucial.
- Integration with Broader Climate Finance: Linking sector-specific taxes with global funds (e.g., Green Climate Fund) could bridge trust gaps.
Conclusion
While the IMO’s carbon tax marks a historic step in sectoral climate action, its limited ambition, lack of equity considerations, and exclusion of major emitters reflect the broader challenges of just and effective climate governance. Going forward, the success of such initiatives will depend on their ability to integrate environmental goals with developmental justice.
Link to Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:
- GS Paper 3 (2022)
“Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at the World Leaders Summit of COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)?” - GS Paper 3 (2020)
“Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development.” - GS Paper 3 (2019)
“‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India are affected by climate change?” - GS Paper 3 (2015)
“Discuss the concept of carbon credit. How can carbon credit help in mitigating the impact of climate change?”
Q. "Examine the role of tree plantation and carbon sequestration in India’s climate change mitigation strategy. Discuss the challenges and policy measures needed to enhance afforestation efforts."
Introduction:
India’s forest cover stands at 25.17%, far below the 33% target set by the National Forest Policy (1988). Given its reliance on carbon-intensive industries, India must accelerate afforestation to mitigate climate change, enhance carbon sequestration, and support rural livelihoods.
Role of Tree Plantation & Carbon Sequestration:
- Climate Mitigation:
- Trees act as natural carbon sinks, absorbing CO₂ and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Green India Mission (GIM) increased forest cover by 0.56% (2017-21).
- Economic & Social Benefits:
- Agroforestry boosts farm incomes by 20-30% (ICAR study).
- Generates employment in nursery management, timber, and non-timber forest products.
- Industrial Compliance & Global Trade:
- The EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) pressures Indian industries to adopt carbon offset strategies (e.g., afforestation for carbon credits).
- Companies use Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to offset emissions.
Challenges:
- Policy & Implementation Gaps:
- Lack of a national carbon credit registry and weak enforcement of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.
- High costs of carbon credits (€83/tonne in EU ETS, 2023).
- Ecological & Socio-Economic Issues:
- Monoculture plantations reduce biodiversity.
- Land conflicts and lack of community participation hinder large-scale afforestation.
Policy Recommendations:
- Strengthen Carbon Markets:
- Establish a domestic carbon trading mechanism with transparent pricing.
- Incentivize private sector investment in afforestation-linked carbon credits.
- Community-Led Afforestation:
- Expand National Agroforestry Policy (2014) with financial support and market linkages for farmers.
- Promote urban forestry under Trees Outside Forests (TOF) Program.
- Industrial Decarbonization:
- Mandate Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds for sustainable forestry.
- Align with ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) norms for global competitiveness.
Conclusion:
As India targets net-zero by 2070, scaling up afforestation is crucial for climate resilience, industrial sustainability, and rural prosperity. A robust policy framework, carbon market reforms, and community participation will be key to success.
Syllabus Linkage:
- GS Paper III (Environment): Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
- GS Paper III (Economy): Sustainable development, corporate social responsibility, carbon trading.
- GS Paper II (Governance): Government policies and interventions for development.
Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Reference:
- 2023: “Explain the role of forests in maintaining the ecological balance and discuss the measures taken by the government to enhance forest cover in India.”
- 2021: “Discuss the potential of agroforestry in sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation in India.”
2019: “How can carbon sequestration through afforestation help India meet its climate commitments under the Paris Agreement?”
Q. “India’s fragmented and sectoral approach to water governance is proving inadequate in the face of growing water stress.” In light of this, critically evaluate the ‘Source to Sea’ (S2S) approach and its relevance for India. Suggest a policy roadmap. (250 words)
Introduction:
India faces a mounting water crisis marked by pollution, over-extraction of groundwater, and the impacts of climate change. The traditional compartmentalized approach to water governance fails to capture the interconnected nature of ecosystems. The ‘Source to Sea’ (S2S) approach, emphasizing integrated freshwater-to-marine ecosystem management, offers a comprehensive alternative aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 6 (clean water) and 14 (life below water).
Body:
- Why a New Approach is Needed:
- Water Stress & Mismanagement:
- As per NITI Aayog (2018), 600 million Indians face high water stress; water scarcity could lead to a 6% GDP loss.
- Over 311 polluted river stretches were identified by CPCB in 2022 across 30 States/UTs.
- Groundwater over-extraction: ~60.5% of extractable groundwater is used; some states exceed 100% usage.
- Fragmented Governance:
- Water governance is divided among multiple tiers—local (panchayat), state, national, and international—leading to overlapping jurisdictions and lack of coordination.
- Inter-State river disputes further complicate management (e.g., Cauvery, Krishna).
- Ecological Disconnection:
- Upstream interventions (dams, diversion, pollution) disrupt the natural hydrological cycle, harming downstream ecosystems and oceans.
- The Source to Sea (S2S) Approach:
- Definition: A holistic water governance framework connecting freshwater systems (rivers, aquifers) to marine ecosystems.
- Origin: Part of the Manila Declaration (2012), supported by the Stockholm International Water Institute (2014).
- Premise: Treat water systems as a socio-ecological continuum rather than isolated segments.
- Global Recognition:
- UN World Water Development Report 2025 and the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation (2025) emphasize cryosphere protection and downstream linkages.
- Current Indian Context:
- Only pilot S2S initiatives: Delhi’s nutrient management and the Indo-Gangetic basin human settlement study.
- No formal adoption in national water policy frameworks.
Way Forward / Policy Roadmap:
- Adopt a Unified National Water Policy:
- Integrate the S2S framework into the proposed National Water Policy, bridging freshwater and marine conservation.
- Implement Nested Governance:
- Align water governance at all levels (local to global) under a nested institutional framework with shared databases.
- Link Science and Policy:
- Use tools like transboundary diagnostic analysis and causal chain analysis to inform policy using real-time data.
- Promote SDG Synergy:
- Link SDG 6.5 (IWRM) with SDG 14.1 (Marine pollution reduction) for policy coherence.
- Public Participation & Innovation:
- Engage communities, innovators, and researchers under a multi-stakeholder platform to co-create water solutions.
Conclusion:
India’s water challenges are deeply interconnected—geographically, ecologically, and socially. The Source to Sea (S2S) approach provides an integrated and sustainable vision for future water governance. To ensure water security and ecological health, it is imperative for India to move beyond fragmented, reactive measures and institutionalize the S2S approach within national frameworks.
Link with UPSC Mains Syllabus:
- GS Paper 3: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
- GS Paper 2: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.
Previous Year Questions (Linked):
- UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS Paper 3): “Suggest measures to improve water storage and irrigation system to make its judicious use under depleting scenarios.”
- UPSC CSE Mains 2019 (GS Paper 3): “Describe the benefits of integrated watershed development programmes.”
- UPSC CSE Mains 2018 (GS Paper 3): “Is water resource management in India sustainable? Examine the impact of urbanization on water resources.”
Q."The emerging science of exposomics offers new insights into India’s growing environmental health burden. Examine the significance of exposomics in public health planning and policy, and suggest measures to integrate it into India’s environmental governance."
Introduction:
India accounts for nearly 25% of the global environmental disease burden, yet current frameworks inadequately capture the full spectrum of environmental risk factors. On World Environment Day 2025, the spotlight on micro-plastics echoes a larger concern—our limited ability to detect and manage environmental exposures. This calls for a paradigm shift, led by exposomics: the science of assessing all environmental exposures an individual faces across their lifespan and linking them to health outcomes.
Body:
- India’s Environmental Health Burden:
- According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021, environmental and occupational risk factors caused 12.8 million global deaths (18.9%) and 14.4% of global DALYs.
- In India alone, nearly 3 million deaths annually are linked to environmental factors such as PM2.5 air pollution, solid fuel use, and lead exposure.
- Environmental factors now contribute to >50% of India’s non-communicable disease (NCD) burden, including heart disease, COPD, diabetes, CKD, and even neurodevelopmental delays in children.
- The Need for Exposomics:
- Current surveillance captures only ~11 environmental risk categories (e.g., air pollution, unsafe water), missing complex interactions like microplastics, chemical mixtures, environmental noise, and climate hazards.
- Traditional methods isolate single risk factors, ignoring the synergistic effects between environmental, metabolic, behavioural, and genetic variables.
III. What Exposomics Offers:
- Aims to create Exposure-Wide Association Studies (EWAS) akin to GWAS in genomics.
- Uses wearable sensors, untargeted chemical analysis, organs-on-a-chip, and AI-driven data integration.
- Helps model real-time, life-course exposure-health relationships, enabling personalized prevention and precision public health.
Way Forward:
- Strategic Investment in Exposomics Infrastructure:
- Create national exposome data repositories.
- Integrate exposomics into India’s National Digital Health Mission and Ayushman Bharat Digital Health Ecosystem.
- Policy and Regulatory Inclusion:
- Mainstream environmental risk data into health surveillance programs and Smart Cities Mission.
- Update India’s Environmental Health Policy (Draft, 2017) to include exposomics framework.
- Capacity Building:
- Foster public-private partnerships in R&D.
- Fund interdisciplinary centres of excellence (IoEs) in exposomics under ICMR, DBT, and MoEFCC.
- Global Collaboration:
- Align with WHO’s One Health approach and contribute to international exposomics initiatives.
Conclusion:
The success of genomics has underscored the value of mapping internal factors. Now, exposomics can decode the external influences—chemicals, particles, stressors—that interact with our biology. For India, it is both a scientific necessity and a public health imperative. Mainstreaming exposomics can lead to data-driven, equitable, and preventive health governance—essential to addressing the 21st-century environmental health crisis.
Link to UPSC Syllabus:
- GS Paper II: Issues relating to health, development and management of health services.
- GS Paper III: Environmental pollution and degradation; Science and Technology—applications in everyday life.
- GS Paper III: Disaster management (climate-sensitive hazards).
Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage:
- GS II (2023): “Public health infrastructure in India suffers from many deficiencies. Examine the role of technology in improving public health delivery.”
- GS III (2021): “What are the challenges and opportunities of adopting cleaner energy technologies in India?”
- GS III (2019): “How can biotechnology improve environmental health outcomes?”
Q. India’s nuclear energy sector is constrained by legal, liability, and investment challenges. In the context of proposed amendments to the Atomic Energy Act and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, critically examine how these reforms could unlock private participation in nuclear power.
Introduction
India’s ambition to expand clean energy capacity through nuclear power has long been held back by legal and policy bottlenecks. Two key laws—the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (CLND) Act, 2010—currently prohibit private sector participation in the ownership, operation, and supply chain of nuclear power. In the 2024–25 Union Budget, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced a new nuclear energy mission, which included private sector involvement. Minister of State Jitendra Singh has indicated that amendments to these Acts may be tabled in the 2025 Monsoon Session, marking a potential turning point.
Body
- Atomic Energy Act, 1962 – Current Constraints
- Only government-owned entities (e.g., NPCIL, BHAVINI) are allowed to set up and operate nuclear reactors.
- Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is not permitted in nuclear energy generation, only in R&D and manufacturing.
- CLND Act, 2010 – The Liability Dilemma
- Section 17(b) holds equipment suppliers liable in the event of an accident.
- This clause contradicts international norms under the Convention on Supplementary Compensation (CSC).
- Global suppliers (GE, Toshiba-Westinghouse) have refused to enter the Indian market due to uncapped liability risks.
- Implications of Proposed Amendments
- Opening up private investment in the construction and management of nuclear reactors could bring technical expertise and capital, essential to meet India’s net-zero by 2070 goal.
- Amending CLND could enable participation from global reactor suppliers, thus reviving the 2008 Indo-U.S. nuclear deal, which has seen no new reactor commissioned to date.
- Could help expand India’s current nuclear capacity of 7,480 MW (as of April 2024) toward the target of 22,480 MW by 2031, as per NPCIL projections.
Way Forward
- Balanced Liability Regime
- Amend CLND to bring India in conformity with CSC, while ensuring a victim compensation fund to address safety and justice concerns.
- Regulatory Autonomy and Oversight
- Strengthen the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) to function independently of operators for better oversight.
- Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Model
- Allow private sector roles in construction, supply chain, and technology transfer, while retaining sovereign control over reactor operation.
- Public Communication and Safety Assurance
- Transparent safety audits and disaster response plans to build public trust in nuclear energy.
- Fast-track Reactor Technologies
- Accelerate deployment of small modular reactors (SMRs) and thorium-based technology, leveraging India’s research advantage.
Conclusion
Amending India’s nuclear energy laws could be a historic reform enabling private investment, global technology partnerships, and energy diversification. However, legal liberalization must be matched by robust regulation, clear liability frameworks, and public transparency. If executed prudently, this shift can position India as a leader in safe, affordable, and clean nuclear energy, aligned with its long-term climate and energy security goals.
Syllabus Linkages:
- GS Paper II: Government policies and interventions
- GS Paper III:
- Infrastructure – Energy
- Science and Technology developments
- Environmental conservation and climate change
Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):
- GS-III, 2022: Discuss India’s achievements in space science and nuclear technology and their impact on development.
- GS-III, 2018: How is nuclear energy important for India? Discuss its advantages and the challenges faced in its implementation.
- GS-III, 2015: Critically examine the developments in India’s nuclear energy sector post the Indo-U.S. civil nuclear agreement.
Q." Should India amend its nuclear energy laws to allow private and foreign investment in nuclear power generation? Critically analyze in light of its clean energy goals and national security considerations."
Introduction:
India aims to expand its nuclear energy capacity from 8 GW to 100 GW by 2047 to meet clean energy targets under the Panchamrit commitments and the Net Zero by 2070 goal. However, existing legal frameworks—Atomic Energy Act, 1962, and Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010—restrict private and foreign participation in the nuclear sector. Recent deliberations propose amending these laws to catalyze investment, technology transfer, and capacity expansion. The debate underscores a tension between energy security, economic feasibility, and liability protection.
Body:
Arguments Supporting Amendments:
- Legal Impediments to Foreign Entry:
- Companies from U.S., France, and Japan have refused entry citing India’s strict liability norms under CLNDA.
- India’s indemnification of Rosatom (Russia) through contractual methods (before 2010) is no longer legally viable.
- Clean Energy and Supply Gap:
- Nuclear is a baseload, low-emission energy source.
- India must supplement NPCIL’s limited capacity through public-private partnerships.
- SMR Opportunities:
- Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) offer safer, decentralized power.
- Startups in this sector are more open to technology transfer for market access.
- Global Norms – CSC Compliance:
- India is a signatory to the Convention on Supplementary Compensation, which channels liability to operators while creating a compensation pool.
Concerns Against Amendments:
- Risk of Diluting Liability:
- Weakening supplier liability could echo Bhopal gas tragedy-like concerns where corporations escaped accountability.
- Hypothetical Tech Transfer Promises:
- Despite 100% FDI in defence, no major technology transfers materialized.
- SMR technology is nascent; economic viability remains untested.
- Security and Strategic Concerns:
- Nuclear power is a strategic domain; full private ownership may risk national security and proliferation.
- Lack of Global Precedents:
- Major nuclear states (US, France, UK) have not scaled up nuclear energy recently. India’s 100 GW target seems ambitious.
Way Forward:
- Balanced Legislative Reform:
- Amend liability provisions to limit but not eliminate supplier responsibility—using contractual caps.
- Establish Independent Regulatory Oversight:
- Strengthen Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) to function independently from operator influence.
- Public-Private-Strategic Partnerships:
- Government can retain majority control while allowing private capital infusion and foreign tech.
- Boost Domestic R&D and SMRs:
- Allocate more funds to Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and scale India’s indigenous SMR program.
Conclusion:
While legal amendments are necessary to unlock investment and technology, India must not repeat past mistakes of compromising accountability for access. A balanced nuclear policy must ensure energy expansion, public safety, and sovereign control, especially in light of emerging threats and India’s global climate commitments.
Syllabus Mapping:
- GS II: Government Policies & Governance, Regulatory Frameworks
- GS III: Infrastructure – Energy, Environment, Indigenization of Technology
- GS III: Disaster Management – Nuclear Safety
Previous Year Questions Linkage:
- UPSC GS III 2019: How can biotechnology improve the living standards of farmers? Discuss its importance in Indian context.
- UPSC GS II 2020: “Institutional quality is a crucial driver of economic performance.” In this context, suggest reforms in regulatory structure.
- UPSC GS III 2015: Discuss the role of nuclear energy in India’s energy mix and the associated challenges.
Q. Cooling technologies in data centres are key to the climate goals of the ICT industry. Discuss the environmental challenges and evaluate the role of new cooling innovations in ensuring sustainable digital infrastructure.
As the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector expands rapidly, its energy footprint is becoming a growing concern. Data centres — the backbone of cloud computing — consume immense electricity, nearly 40% of which is spent on cooling alone. According to a 2024 study by Microsoft and WSP Global published in Nature, advanced cooling methods like cold plates and immersion cooling can reduce emissions by 15–21%, energy consumption by 15–20%, and water use by up to 52%, making them critical tools in achieving ICT’s 42% emission cut target by 2030 (from 2015 levels).
Body
1. The Challenge: Heat and Emissions in Data Centres
- Transistors on chips generate massive heat during processing, risking malfunction.
- Traditional air cooling systems are energy-intensive and water-inefficient, especially at hyperscale.
- The ICT sector contributes up to 3–4% of global emissions, expected to rise with growing cloud adoption.
2. Innovations in Cooling
a) Cold Plate Cooling:
- Uses microchannel heat exchangers directly mounted on chips.
- Circulates coolant (e.g., 25% glycol + 75% water) to transfer heat.
- Liquid-to-air transfer efficiency: 50–80%.
- Microsoft’s pilot systems show 21% lower GHG emissions and over 30% water savings.
b) Immersion Cooling:
- Submerges components in thermally conductive, non-electrical liquid.
- Works in one-phase or two-phase formats — similar to mud pot evaporation or oil bath.
- Offers 100% heat capture, improved reliability, fanless operation, and silent cooling.
3. Evaluating Sustainability through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
- Microsoft’s LCA framework assesses emissions, energy, and water use from cradle-to-grave.
- Results show cold plates and immersion cooling outperform air cooling, especially when coupled with renewable energy sources.
- With grid electricity: >15% GHG reduction, >31% water savings.
- With 100% renewables: 85–90% emission cuts, 55–85% water reduction.
- Results show cold plates and immersion cooling outperform air cooling, especially when coupled with renewable energy sources.
4. Limitations and Risks
- Coolant fluid regulations vary and may raise deployment barriers.
- High-tech systems are cost-intensive and complex to retrofit.
- Risk of ecological trade-offs if upstream energy or material sourcing is not green.
Way Forward
- Policy Support & Standards:
- BIS and MoEFCC should frame guidelines for eco-friendly coolant usage, LCA norms, and thermal management standards.
- Integrate green cooling norms in the National Digital Communications Policy.
- Public-Private Innovation:
- Incentivize indigenous R&D under PLI for IT hardware and Startup India missions for cooling tech solutions.
- Public-Private Innovation:
- Green Energy Integration:
- Mandate renewable-powered data centres, using rooftop solar and green grids.
- Green Energy Integration:
- Sustainable Procurement:
- Data centre developers should adopt LCA-based green procurement to minimize lifetime emissions.
- Sustainable Procurement:
Conclusion
Cooling is no longer a back-end issue — it is a front-line climate imperative. As data centre capacity scales with the digital economy, green cooling technologies like cold plates and immersion cooling, paired with renewable energy, are indispensable. The ICT industry must adopt systemic, lifecycle-based sustainability strategies to ensure that progress in digitalisation does not come at the cost of the planet.
Syllabus Mapping – GS Paper 3
- Science & Technology – Developments and their impact on environment
- Environment – Conservation, pollution control, environmental assessment
- Infrastructure – Energy efficiency, green infrastructure
- Climate Change Mitigation Strategies
Previous Year Mains Linkages
- GS3 (2022): Discuss the role of technology in addressing environmental challenges.
- GS3 (2021): Discuss steps required to improve energy efficiency in the IT and digital sector.
- GS3 (2020): What are the steps taken by India to fulfil its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs)?
- GS3 (2019): How can clean technologies help address climate change issues in the industry sector?
Q."Biodiversity conservation is increasinglybeing recognized not just as an environmental necessity but as a cornerstone ofpublic health and food security. Discuss the concept of “biohappiness” and the need to revive agrobiodiversity through orphan crops to ensure sustainable human well-being."
Introduction:
India, home to nearly 8% of global biodiversity and one of 17 megadiverse countries, faces a paradox—biodiversity loss amid abundance. Driven by market-oriented agriculture and dietary homogenization, the neglect of indigenous food systems has triggered nutritional deficiencies, climate vulnerability, and cultural erosion. In this context, “biohappiness”, as envisioned by M.S. Swaminathan, refers to a state where biodiversity ensures ecological sustainability, nutritional security, and cultural continuity.
Body:
- The Crisis of Agrobiodiversity and Neglected Species:
- India has four biodiversity hotspots (e.g., Western Ghats, Himalayas), yet agrobiodiversity is vanishing, especially in tribal areas like Arunachal Pradesh and Eastern Ghats.
- Global food systems depend on three crops—rice, wheat, maize—for 50% of plant-based calories, leading to nutritional imbalances and decline in food resilience.
- Nutritional and Ecological Potential of Orphan Crops:
- Neglected and Underutilized Species (NUS) like millets, legumes, yams, and wild greens are nutrient-dense, climate-resilient, and embedded in local ecosystems.
- India’s millet promotion efforts (e.g., International Year of Millets 2023, Shree Anna Yojana) aim to revive these crops via production, export, value chains, and state-led Millet Missions.
III. Successful Interventions and Community Models:
- Kolli Hills (TN): MSSRF’s millet conservation and women-led participatory research helped document knowledge, diversify diets, and increase income.
- Koraput (Odisha): The Odisha Millet Mission revived community-based seed-to-consumption systems.
- Interdisciplinary Opportunities in Biodiversity Science:
- A new science of biodiversity integrates agriculture, health, nutrition, climate, and economics.
- India can leverage its scientific infrastructure and traditional knowledge to become a bioeconomy leader, supporting livelihoods and well-being of 1.4 billion people.
Way Forward:
- Mainstream Orphan Crops into Food Systems:
- Expand coverage of minor millets in Public Distribution System (PDS).
- Incentivize local procurement, processing units, and branding of traditional crops.
- Strengthen Community-Led Conservation:
- Fund grassroots innovations and women-led biodiversity groups.
- Document and digitize traditional culinary and medicinal knowledge.
- Integrate Biohappiness in Policy:
- Align National Biodiversity Action Plan with Ayushman Bharat, POSHAN Abhiyan, and climate adaptation policies.
- Promote Interdisciplinary Research:
- Support bioinformatics, ethnobotany, and nutrition science to integrate NUS into national R&D priorities.
Conclusion:
The concept of biohappiness bridges ecological well-being with human health and dignity. As India navigates its development path, reviving agrobiodiversity, particularly orphan crops, offers a roadmap for resilient food systems, climate-smart agriculture, and inclusive growth. Celebrating our ecological wisdom may be the most future-ready act of public health and food justice.
Link to UPSC Syllabus:
- GS Paper III – Environment and Biodiversity Conservation, Food Security, Agriculture.
- GS Paper II – Health and Nutrition, Welfare Policies.
- GS Paper I – Indian Society: Role of Tribes, Traditional Knowledge.
Link with Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:
- GS III (2023): “Can the strategy of regional resource-based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India?”
- GS III (2020): “How can traditional ecological knowledge be utilized for biodiversity conservation?”
- GS II (2019): “The role of cooperative federalism in food security and health.”