Introduction

The imposition of a 25% reciprocal tariff and an additional 25% penal levy by the United States on India’s exports in August 2025 marks a significant strain on bilateral trade relations. While India maintains a merchandise trade surplus with the U.S. ($41.18 billion in 2024–25), these measures—linked partly to India’s continued import of Russian crude—have the potential to dent GDP growth, widen the Current Account Deficit (CAD), and create adverse spillovers for inflation and the exchange rate. In the broader perspective, they signal the increasing use of tariffs as instruments of geopolitical pressure, challenging the principles of free and fair trade.

Body

  1. Immediate Economic Impact
  • Trade Balance:
    • Reciprocal tariffs can reduce exports to the U.S. by up to 25% (assuming elasticity of -1).
    • This could widen the trade deficit by 0.56% of GDP (to 7.84%).
  • Growth Rate:
    • Base case GDP growth for 2024–25: 6.5%.
    • With tariffs, GDP growth could drop by ~0.6 percentage points to 5.9% (0.4% drop in 2025–26 considering elapsed months).
  • Current Account Deficit:
    • CAD may rise from 0.6% to 1.15% of GDP.
  • Oil Import Costs:
    • Penal levy acts as an indirect non-tariff barrier on Russian oil, forcing costlier imports from the U.S./others, with inflationary implications.
  1. Mitigating Factors and Caveats
  • Trade Diversification Efforts:
  • Recent trade pact with the UK; ongoing negotiations with EU and others could offset part of the CAD rise.
  • Competitor Tariffs:
  • If U.S. imposes similar tariffs on other competing exporters, India’s losses may moderate.
  • Exchange Rate Depreciation:
  • Rupee at ₹87.5/USD could make exports more competitive, partially offsetting tariff impact.
  1. Medium-Term Risks
  • Sustained tariff regime could structurally depress export competitiveness.
  • Greater dependence on high-cost crude could exacerbate CAD and fuel inflation.
  • Potential spillover to investment sentiment, especially in manufacturing sectors reliant on U.S. markets.
  1. Policy Options for India
  2. a) Trade Negotiation and Diplomacy
  • Use the three-week negotiation window to seek exemptions on key export categories.
  • Highlight inequity—several nations import more from Russia yet escape such penalties.
  • Build coalitions with like-minded economies at WTO and other forums.
  1. b) Domestic Tariff Reforms
  • Review import tariffs on inputs critical to export manufacturing.
  • Empirical evidence: higher import tariffs negatively impact export growth, especially with rising import content in exports.
  1. c) Market Diversification
  • Intensify outreach to ASEAN, Africa, Latin America for non-U.S. export opportunities.
  • Leverage FTAs under negotiation to widen market access.
  1. d) Strategic Energy Sourcing
  • Expand long-term contracts with Middle Eastern and African suppliers.
  • Accelerate domestic renewable energy capacity to reduce crude import dependence.

Conclusion

The U.S.’s reciprocal tariffs and penal levies may lower India’s GDP growth by over 0.6 percentage points in the current year and widen the CAD significantly. While immediate macroeconomic impact may be partly cushioned by new trade agreements and rupee depreciation, a sustained tariff-based trade regime would undermine India’s long-term export competitiveness. India’s response must blend strategic trade negotiations, tariff rationalisation, market diversification, and energy security measures to safeguard growth and external stability in an increasingly protectionist global trade environment.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • 2023 (GS 3): “How do trade wars impact emerging economies like India? Discuss with suitable examples.”
  • 2020 (GS 3): “Examine the implications of protectionist policies on India’s trade and growth prospects.”
  • 2018 (GS 3): “How does trade policy impact the current account balance of a country? Illustrate with India’s recent experience.”

Introduction

India’s electoral democracy is premised on universal adult suffrage under Article 326 of the Constitution, supported by the Representation of the People (RP) Act, 1950. However, the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of Bihar’s electoral rolls has triggered concerns about disenfranchisement of migrant workers, many of whom find their names deleted from their native constituency rolls due to the “ordinarily resident” requirement. With 11% of India’s population migrating for employment-related reasons (PLFS 2020–21), this issue has deep implications for political representation, social justice, and federal harmony.

Body

  1. Legal Provisions and Judicial Interpretation
  • Section 19, RP Act, 1950: Requires an elector to be “ordinarily resident” in the constituency.
  • Section 20: Temporary absence does not remove ordinary residence; ownership of property alone is insufficient.
  • Section 20A (2010): Extends voting rights to NRIs at the passport address constituency.
  • Judicial View: Gauhati HC (1999) held that “ordinary residence” implies habitual, permanent character and intent to dwell.
  • Constitutional Right: Article 19(1)(e) allows citizens to reside and settle anywhere, thus enabling a shift in voting constituency.
  1. Migrant Workers – The Practical Dilemma
  • Scale: 15 crore potential voters are migrant workers (intra- and inter-state).
  • Nature of Migration: Often single male migration, seasonal work, temporary shelters, and frequent movement.
  • Political Sensitivity: Host states fear political distortion by migrant voters unfamiliar with local issues.
  • Documentation Hurdles: Many migrants lack valid voter ID proof at new locations; Aadhaar not accepted in SIR for fresh registration.
  1. Legal vs Political Challenges
  • De Jure: Migrants can register in new constituencies under the RP Act.
  • De Facto: Social, political, and logistical hurdles may lead to disenfranchisement.
  • Host State Opposition: Regional parties claim migrants dilute local political identity.
  • Home State Concern: Loss of vote share in the migrant’s native region, affecting representative accountability.
  1. Solutions and Technological Possibilities

Short-Term Measures

  • Enforce statutory holiday on polling day for migrant-heavy sectors.
  • Special train and bus services to enable return to native constituencies.
  • Paid travel leave for inter-state migrants.

Medium-Term Measures

  • Pilot Multi-Constituency Remote EVMs (RVMs) – previously tested by ECI for up to 72 constituencies but paused due to political objections.
  • Digital voter authentication linked with secure blockchain-based polling systems (explored globally).

Long-Term Measures

  • Amend RP Act to explicitly protect migrant voting choice—whether at origin or destination.
  • Establish a National Migrant Voter Facilitation Programme under ECI, in partnership with Labour Ministry and Indian Railways.

Conclusion

The disenfranchisement of migrant workers is both a constitutional concern and a democratic deficit. While legal provisions under the RP Act provide avenues for inclusion, practical and political constraints demand a multi-pronged approach combining legal reform, logistical facilitation, and secure technology adoption. As the Supreme Court deliberates on the SIR-linked cases, it must balance the sanctity of “ordinary residence” with the imperative of preserving universal adult franchise for India’s most mobile and vulnerable workforce.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • 2022 (GS 2): “Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in ensuring free and fair elections in India.”
  • 2017 (GS 2): “Discuss the challenges to free and fair elections in India. Suggest reforms to strengthen the electoral process.”
  • 2015 (GS 2): “The right to vote is a legal right, not a fundamental right. Examine its implications on electoral participation in India.”

Introduction

The recent withdrawal of over 300 Chinese engineers from Foxconn’s iPhone 17 manufacturing facilities in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka is not merely an administrative move but a geo-economic stratagem aimed at stalling India’s manufacturing momentum. Coupled with export restrictions on rare earths, critical minerals, and high-end manufacturing equipment, these actions reflect Beijing’s intent to preserve a “unipolar Asia” under its economic hegemony. For India, these events underscore the vulnerabilities in its industrial base, strategic dependencies, and supply chain resilience in the face of economic coercion by a major competitor.

Body

  1. Nature of China’s Actions
  • Human Capital Withdrawal: Specialised Chinese technicians recalled, disrupting technology transfer and operational efficiency in advanced manufacturing.
  • Resource Leverage: Export restrictions on rare earths (gallium, germanium, graphite) and critical minerals essential for electronics, EVs, and defence.
  • Equipment Access Curtailment: Informal curbs on high-end electronics assembly machinery, boring machines, and solar manufacturing equipment.
  • Covert Trade Restrictions: Non-tariff barriers via verbal instructions, administrative delays, and supply chain disruption.

Implication: Keeps India dependent on Chinese inputs, slowing self-reliance in high-value sectors.

  1. Strategic Context – China’s Domestic Compulsions
  • Demographic Decline: Ageing population due to one-child policy legacy.
  • Economic Pressures: Real estate crisis, overcapacity, and low domestic consumption compel heavy reliance on exports.
  • Trade Surplus Dependence: Nearly $1 trillion surplus, with aggressive price undercutting to retain market share (e.g., BYD in EVs).
  • Political Stability: Export revenues fund domestic security and military budgets; losing competitiveness could trigger social instability.
  1. India’s Vulnerabilities
  • Nascent Manufacturing Base: Persistent infrastructure gaps and bureaucratic hurdles.
  • Import Dependence: Reliance on China and other countries for semiconductors, critical components, and even basic assembly technology.
  • Limited Value-Chain Control: “Make in India” heavily dependent on external supply chains.
  • Strategic Fragility in Alliances: Recent U.S. tariff hikes on Indian goods (50%) despite exemptions for China highlight the unpredictability of friend-shoring partners.
  1. Lessons and Way Forward
  2. a) Industrial Self-Reliance:
  • Accelerate PLI schemes for electronics, semiconductors, and EVs.
  • Invest in domestic rare earth mining and refining capabilities (per Mines and Minerals Amendment, 2023).
  1. b) Strategic Supply Chain Security:
  • Diversify imports of critical minerals from Australia, Africa, and Latin America.
  • Develop indigenous technology for high-end manufacturing equipment.
  1. c) Infrastructure and Policy Reform:
  • Streamline approvals, reduce logistics bottlenecks, and incentivise R&D.
  • Upgrade port connectivity and power reliability for global competitiveness.
  1. d) Strategic Autonomy:
  • Reduce overdependence on Western friend-shoring by building multi-alignment trade partnerships.
  • Engage ASEAN, Africa, and Latin America for markets and resources.

Conclusion

China’s calibrated moves to undermine India’s manufacturing ambitions are part of a broader strategy to preserve its economic primacy and internal stability. The lesson for India is clear — strategic vulnerabilities are best addressed by building a strong, self-reliant industrial ecosystem, reducing dependency on external sources, and pursuing genuine strategic autonomy. Only then can India realistically emerge as a credible competitor in the global manufacturing landscape and resist economic coercion.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • 2023 (GS 2): “Economic diplomacy has become the core of India’s foreign policy.” Analyse with examples.
  • 2020 (GS 3): “How far is India prepared to handle supply chain disruptions in critical sectors?” Discuss.
  • 2018 (GS 2): “What are the strategic challenges in India-China economic relations, and how can they be addressed?”

Introduction:

India’s foreign policy is at a critical inflection point, shaped by an evolving global order marked by strategic realignments, protectionism, and regional conflicts. As geopolitical cooperation gives way to confrontation, India’s traditional calibrated neutrality and issue-based alignment faces diminishing returns. The post-Galwan standoff with China, U.S. trade coercion under Trump, EU’s selective sanctions, and the re-emergence of Pakistan and China in India’s neighbourhood are reshaping India’s external environment. India must therefore evolve from being a reactive power to a proactive geopolitical actor.

Body:

  1. Disruptions to India’s Strategic Partnerships:
  • Despite decisive retaliation in Operation Sindoor, major partners like the U.S. and EU showed reluctance in calling out Pakistan, revealing weak support on India’s core security issues.
  • U.S. imposed 25% tariffs on India even as NISAR satellite collaboration was being celebrated — turning trade disputes into geopolitical pressure over Russian oil imports.
  • U.S. double standards evident in its continued imports of Russian uranium and palladium, even while criticising India’s energy ties with Russia.
  1. China’s Opportunism in the Neighbourhood:
  • China leveraged the power vacuum through:
  • Proposals like China-Pakistan-Bangladesh trilateral grouping,
  • Military base at Lalmonirhat (Bangladesh) near the Siliguri Corridor,
  • Standardising names in Arunachal Pradesh, and
  • Squeezing Indian supply chains using its dominance in rare earths, APIs, tunnel boring equipment.
  • Construction of China’s largest dam near Brahmaputra threatens India’s water security.
  1. Strategic Ambiguity on Global Conflicts:
  • India’s passivity on Gaza, Israel-Iran, and Ukraine contrasts with its expectations for support on regional issues like Kashmir and terrorism.
  • Operation Sindoor demonstrated that global solidarity is reciprocal — India must engage more actively in global conflicts to ensure its concerns are also prioritised.
  1. The Economic Implications of Geopolitical Weakness:
  • The EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and sanctions on Vadinar Refinery highlight coercive trade tactics under the guise of climate or ethical concerns.
  • India’s missed RCEP opportunity and delays in concluding the India-EU BTIA and India-U.S. trade deal constrain economic leverage.
  • In today’s world, geopolitics dictates trade and technology flows — not just WTO rules or MFN status.

Way Forward:

  1. Adopt Assertive Multi-Alignment:
    • Deepen engagements with BRICS, SCO, ASEAN, and African Union while safeguarding autonomy.
  2. Pursue Early Trade Agreements:
    • Conclude the India-U.S. trade deal and India-EU BTIA to anchor economic ties in uncertain geopolitics.
  3. Recalibrate Position on Global Conflicts:
    • Take clear, strategic stands on major international issues to gain moral and diplomatic reciprocity.
  4. Strengthen Neighbourhood Diplomacy:
    • Counter China’s influence in Bangladesh, Maldives, Myanmar through targeted investments and cultural diplomacy.
  5. Leverage Strategic Summits:
    • Use India’s BRICS 2026 presidency and Quad leadership to project India’s global leadership ambitions.

Conclusion:

India can no longer afford to “keep its head down” and expect economic growth in isolation from geopolitical realities. The post-pandemic and post-Galwan world has shattered the old template of silent rise. In a fragmented, transactional and coercive world, India must integrate its foreign policy, trade, and technology strategies to secure its long-term national interests. To get its economic and technological trajectory right, India must first get its geopolitics right.

Relevant UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS II (2023): “In view of India’s growing economic and strategic clout, should it reconsider its position on non-alignment?”
  • GS II (2020): “What are the key challenges in India’s neighbourhood policy? Suggest a revised strategy.”
  • GS II (2018): “India’s foreign policy has shifted from idealism to realism in recent years.” Discuss with examples.
  • GS II (2015): “Critically examine the evolving role of India in a multipolar world.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of External Affairs, India (2025)
  • UN Security Council Reports (2025)
  • Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (2025)
  • Trade data from Ministry of Commerce and Industry
  • Statements from Parliamentary Debates and Foreign Policy Think Tanks

Introduction:

India’s welfare model is undergoing a transformative shift. With over 1.2 billion Aadhaar enrollments, 1200+ Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes, and 36 state grievance redressal portals, the State is embracing a technocratic and data-driven model of welfare delivery. While this enhances efficiency and reduces leakages, it also raises concerns about political accountability, federalism, and participatory democracy. Scholars refer to this shift as the emergence of a post-rights based welfare regime, where citizens risk becoming auditable data points rather than rights-bearing individuals.

Body:

  1. Efficiency at the Cost of Democratic Norms:
  • Welfare schemes like PM-KISAN, e-SHRAM, and Aadhaar-linked PDS prioritize algorithmic coverage and auditability, while ignoring local contexts and discretion.
  • This marks a shift in governance from deliberating “who deserves and why” to “how to reduce leakage and track transactions.”
  • Justice D.Y. Chandrachud’s dissenting opinion in the Aadhaar verdict (2018) warned against the dehumanisation of citizens into “disembedded data points”.
  1. Shrinking Social Sector Spending and Participation:
  • India’s social sector spending declined to 17% of total expenditure in 2024–25, down from the 21% average between 2014–2024 (Budget Documents).
  • Key welfare heads like minority welfare, employment, nutrition, and social security fell from 11% (pre-COVID) to just 3% (post-COVID).
  • RTI pendency (4 lakh+ cases as of June 2024, CIC Report) and vacant information commissioner posts (8 vacancies) reveal weakening transparency architecture.
  1. The Federal and Democratic Deficit:
  • Systems like CPGRAMS centralise grievance redressal but flatten state-level accountability, creating “algorithmic insulation” that shields political actors from responsibility.
  • States are becoming passive implementers of centrally-designed schemes, undermining grassroots deliberation and Gram Sabha discretion.
  1. Philosophical and Political Concerns:
  • Drawing on Habermas’ technocratic consciousness and Foucault’s governmentality, the current welfare regime strips away contextual and reflexive decision-making.
  • Citizens become “homo sacer” (Agamben) — politically invisible, even when administratively registered.
  • Rancière’s warning that democracy hinges on whose suffering is made visible and contestable, not just computable, becomes especially relevant.

Way Forward:

  1. Democratic Anti-fragility:
  • Build systems that are resilient to stress, not dependent on perfect data.
  • Include offline fallback mechanisms, human-in-the-loop decision making, and statutory “right to explanation and appeal” in digital governance (UNHRC Guidelines).
  1. Federal Pluralism:
  • Empower States to design and adapt welfare schemes to local contexts.
  • Institutionalise Gram Panchayat Development Plans and promote Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan for participatory planning.
  1. Community-Driven Impact Audits:
  • Encourage platform cooperatives (e.g., Kerala’s Kudumbashree) and civil society-led audits for real-time feedback.
  • Strengthen legal aid clinics, grassroots political education, and community forums.
  1. Reinvigorate Transparency Institutions:
  • Fill RTI vacancies, reform Information Commissions, and integrate grievance dashboards with accountability metrics.

Conclusion:

A technocratic welfare state may be fast and efficient, but without democratic deliberation, it risks alienating those it aims to serve. A “Viksit Bharat” (Developed India) must not be built on mere digital coverage, but on constitutional compassion, political inclusion, and participatory governance. Welfare delivery must reorient from algorithmic auditability to citizen dignity, ensuring people remain partners, not datapoints, in governance.

Relevant UPSC PYQs:

  • GS II (2023): Digital governance is an enabler but not a substitute for democratic participation. Discuss.
  • GS II (2022): Do you agree that the Indian state has moved from a welfare model to a technocratic model of governance? Justify.
  • GS II (2020): Examine the challenges posed by the use of technology in governance without strong democratic safeguards.
  • GS II (2019): E-governance is not just about technology but about transforming service delivery. Elaborate.

Sources:

  • Union Budget 2024–25 Expenditure Data
  • Central Information Commission (CIC) Annual Report 2023–24
  • Ministry of Electronics & IT – CPGRAMS Dashboard
  • Justice D.Y. Chandrachud’s Aadhaar Dissent (2018)
  • UNHRC Report on Digital Welfare Systems (2022)

Introduction:

A year after Sheikh Hasina’s ouster in August 2024, Bangladesh finds itself embroiled in political instability, religious extremism, economic distress, and growing anti-India sentiment. The regime under Prof. Muhammad Yunus, initially projected as a result of a spontaneous student movement, is now widely seen as a strategic power shift orchestrated by radical forces led by Jamaat-e-Islami (JeI). The regime’s authoritarian tendencies, repression of minorities, and failure to deliver economic stability have further alienated the population and worsened bilateral ties with India.

Body:

  1. Legitimacy Crisis and Rise of Islamist Politics:
  • The Yunus-led regime lacks constitutional legitimacy, as the Bangladesh Constitution has no provision for an interim government of this kind.
  • While court orders reinstated a caretaker system, the inclusion of Islamist groups like Hizb-ut Tahrir and Hefazat-e-Islam as advisors has violated neutrality, turning governance into an instrument of religious radicalisation.
  • Tweets from advisors calling for a Sharia-based caliphate and civil war highlight the Islamist agenda’s grip on governance.
  1. Suppression of Opposition and Liberation War Legacy:
  • Awami League activities were banned; its members have been imprisoned or killed.
  • Monuments and institutions linked to the 1971 Liberation War were destroyed, eroding Bangladesh’s secular nationalist identity.
  • The creation of the National Citizen Party (NCP), alleged to be the ‘King’s Party’, has failed to gain popular traction and is widely perceived as a front for JeI interests.
  1. Mobocracy and Institutional Erosion:
  • Key state organs — judiciary, central bank, and media — have been undermined through mob pressure and violent coercion.
  • Journalists have been imprisoned, silenced, or impoverished, enabling the regime to control narratives and restrict dissent.
  1. Economic Decline and Public Discontent:
  • GDP growth halved, inflation soared, factories closed, and private investment stagnated.
  • The Bangladesh Bank’s 2025 report cited “persistent inflation and election uncertainty” as major challenges.
  • The public’s growing frustration has led to a collective yearning for the stability and prosperity of Hasina’s rule.
  1. Strained Ties with India Amid China-Pakistan Pivot:
  • The Yunus regime’s anti-India propaganda and foreign policy tilt toward Pakistan and China have strained bilateral ties.
  • Despite provocations, India has shown strategic patience, reaffirming its support for a democratic, peaceful, and inclusive Bangladesh.
  • India’s people-centric approach and emphasis on restoring free and fair elections reflect a desire to rebuild ties with a legitimate, elected government.

Conclusion:

Bangladesh, under the interim Yunus regime, has veered off its constitutional, secular, and democratic course, descending into mob-led governance, economic chaos, and radicalised policymaking. The erosion of institutional credibility, violence against minorities, and manipulation of electoral timelines have alienated the people. Public sentiment now increasingly echoes a longing for stability, prosperity, and secular governance. India remains committed to supporting a people-elected government that honours democratic values and bilateral cooperation. The road ahead lies in early, inclusive, and credible elections, restoring both domestic legitimacy and regional stability.

Relevant UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS Paper II (2023): “Critically analyse India’s foreign policy approach toward its neighbours amidst regional instability.”
  • GS Paper II (2021): “India’s neighbourhood policy needs a pragmatic shift in the face of growing Chinese influence.” Discuss.
  • GS Paper II (2018): “Bilateral, regional and global groupings and their impact on India’s interests.”
  • GS Paper II (2015): “Discuss the role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security in India.”

Sources Used:

  • Bangladesh Bank Report (July 2025)
  • UNFCCC Reports
  • Bangladesh Supreme Court Orders (Dec 2024)
  • MEA statements from PM Modi-Yunus bilateral meeting (April 2025)
  • Veena Sikri Editorial (The Hindu, August 2025)

Introduction:

India’s ambitious electrification and decarbonisation goals, driven by electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage, are catalysing an exponential surge in lithium battery usage. With projections of lithium battery demand rising from 4 GWh in 2023 to 139 GWh by 2035, the associated battery waste challenge is equally pressing. In 2022 alone, lithium batteries contributed to 7,00,000 metric tonnes of India’s 1.6 million tonnes of e-waste. Recognising this, the Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR), 2022 were introduced with Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) as a cornerstone policy. However, key gaps remain in implementation, especially regarding the EPR floor price, posing both environmental and economic risks.

Body:

  1. EPR and the Challenge of Low Floor Pricing:
  • EPR mandates producers to finance battery collection and recycling through certified recyclers.
  • Recyclers depend on EPR certificates to recover costs, but the floor price under consideration is too low, discouraging investment in safe and efficient recycling.
  • For context, EV battery recycling in the U.K. earns recyclers ₹600/kg, compared to less than ₹150/kg being discussed in India, even after adjusting for purchasing power.
  1. Implications of a Weak EPR Pricing Framework:
  • Unsustainable business models drive recyclers to cut corners or operate informally, issuing fake certificates or dumping hazardous waste.
  • Such malpractices mirror failures seen in India’s plastic waste sector, distorting the market and undermining formal recyclers.
  • Rare mineral recovery (e.g., cobalt, lithium, nickel) becomes inefficient, increasing import dependency and resulting in foreign exchange losses — estimated to exceed $1 billion by 2030.
  1. Producer Non-Compliance and Global Inequality:
  • Large OEMs and electronics manufacturers often apply double standards, complying in developed markets while resisting regulations in developing nations like India.
  • Despite global metal price reductions, cost savings haven’t been passed to consumers, showing that higher EPR pricing won’t raise retail prices significantly.
  1. Recommendations: Policy and Market Integration:
  • India must adopt a globally comparable EPR floor price, reflecting true recycling costs, to encourage sustainable investments.
  • Introduce robust audit mechanisms, digital tracking of EPR certificates, and penalties for fraud to improve enforcement.
  • Integrate informal recyclers by providing training and compliance support, expanding recycling capacity while eliminating unsafe practices.
  • A market-based flexible pricing system, adjusting over time as the sector matures, can allow transition towards a self-sustaining circular economy.

Conclusion:

India stands at a pivotal juncture where battery waste management is no longer a peripheral concern but a strategic imperative for energy security, environmental health, and economic resilience. Fixing the EPR floor price mechanism, strengthening enforcement, and mainstreaming informal recyclers are critical first steps. With the right policy recalibrations and stakeholder collaboration, battery waste can be transformed from a crisis to an opportunity — powering India’s journey toward a clean, circular, and sustainable economy.

Relevant UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS III (2021): “What are the challenges and opportunities of waste-to-energy projects in India?”
  • GS III (2020): “India’s e-waste management system requires structural reforms. Discuss.”
  • GS III (2019): “How far do you agree that the behaviour of consumers and manufacturers has caused the e-waste problem in India? What can be done to manage e-waste effectively?”
  • GS III (2016): “Recycling of e-waste in India is a major concern. Discuss the steps taken and challenges remaining.”

Sources:

  • Battery Waste Management Rules, MoEFCC (2022)
  • NITI Aayog Report on Battery Storage and Circular Economy (2023)
  • Central Pollution Control Board Data (2022)
  • United Nations E-Waste Monitoring Report (2023)
  • UK Government Battery Waste Pricing Guidelines

 

Introduction:

India’s recent conclusion of the India-United Kingdom Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) has attracted scrutiny, particularly for its provisions on intellectual property rights (IPR) and public health safeguards. Article 13.6 of the agreement promotes voluntary licensing as the “preferable” route for ensuring access to medicines. This development marks a significant shift in India’s long-standing position at global forums, where it had strongly advocated for compulsory licensing as a key measure to ensure affordable access to life-saving drugs in developing nations.

Body:

  1. Compulsory Licensing: India’s Historical Position
  • India’s Patents Act (Amended in 2005), in compliance with WTO’s TRIPS Agreement, incorporated compulsory licensing to counter high medicine prices and unmet public health needs.
  • Notably, in 2012, the Natco Pharma vs. Bayer case enabled the production of sorafenib tosylate (anti-cancer drug), reducing its cost from ₹2.8 lakh to under ₹9,000 per month.
  • India had historically championed the Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001), which reaffirmed developing countries’ rights to issue compulsory licences.
  1. Shift to Voluntary Licensing under CETA
  • Article 13.6 of CETA prefers voluntary licensing, thereby undermining India’s ability to issue compulsory licences on its own terms.
  • The inclusion of such provisions dilutes India’s autonomy in determining public health safeguards and contradicts its earlier WTO stance.
  • This move also reflects a pattern of concessions, as seen in India’s FTA with the European Free Trade Association, where reporting requirements on patent working were weakened.
  1. Implications for Access to Medicines
  • Voluntary licences, controlled by pharmaceutical giants, often come with restrictive conditions — such as limited geographies, technology control, and API supply regulation — weakening the bargaining power of generic manufacturers.
  • Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) has documented such constraints, notably in the case of Cipla’s remdesivir production during COVID-19, where Indian prices were higher than U.S. prices in PPP terms.
  1. Impact on Technology Transfer Demands
  • The pact also affects India’s demand for technology transfer on favourable terms, long advocated since the New International Economic Order (NIEO, 1974).
  • India’s Fourth Biennial Update Report (2024) to the UNFCCC cited slow technology transfer and IP barriers as major hurdles in adopting climate-friendly technologies.
  • By accepting language promoting voluntary mechanisms, India risks weakening its voice in future climate negotiations demanding IPR-flexible green technology transfers.

Conclusion:

The CETA’s intellectual property chapter, while appearing cooperative, represents a significant policy reversal on India’s part. By prioritizing voluntary licensing over compulsory licensing, India may lose leverage in global health and climate forums. In the pursuit of deeper trade ties with the UK, India must be cautious not to compromise long-held positions that uphold the right to affordable medicines and technology sovereignty for the Global South. Safeguards and policy space in trade negotiations are vital to balance public health priorities with international trade commitments.

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • GS II (2022): “Discuss the role of IPR in the context of global public health, especially with reference to the COVID-19 pandemic.”
  • GS III (2015): “Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are critical in fostering innovation. In light of the statement, examine India’s IPR policy.”
  • GS II (2013): “Discuss the impact of FTAs on public health in developing countries with reference to TRIPS provisions and India’s pharmaceutical industry.”

Sources:

  • Ministry of Commerce and Industry – India-UK CETA draft
  • WTO TRIPS Agreement
  • Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001)
  • India’s Fourth Biennial Update Report to UNFCCC (2024)
  • Médecins Sans Frontières Reports
  • Case Law: Natco vs. Bayer (2012)

 

Introduction: Mangroves—Nature’s Blue Capital

Mangroves, the salt-tolerant trees found in tropical and subtropical coastal zones, are blue carbon ecosystems that offer immense ecological, economic, and climate benefits. Yet, they remain marginal in policy discourse, often viewed narrowly as biodiversity buffers rather than critical natural infrastructure. As climate change intensifies coastal risks, mangroves offer a sustainable, low-cost solution to urban resilience, livelihoods, and carbon sequestration.

Body

  1. Ecological and Economic Value of Mangroves
  • Climate Resilience and Carbon Sequestration:
  • Mangroves sequester up to 4x more carbon per hectare than terrestrial forests.
  • In the Sundarbans, carbon sequestration alone is valued at ₹462 million/year, while total services are worth ₹664 billion.
  • Disaster Risk Reduction:
  • Mangroves reduce storm surge and coastal erosion, saving billions in avoided infrastructure damages.
  • Livelihood Security:
  • They act as nurseries for fish, sustaining fisheries and ensuring food and income security for coastal communities.
  • Livelihood alternatives like aquaculture, eco-tourism, and apiculture also emerge from healthy mangrove systems.
  1. Challenges in Urban and Coastal Contexts
  • Degradation in cities like Mumbai and Chennai due to encroachment, pollution, and neglect.
  • Lack of community empowerment, undervaluation in fiscal planning, and weak enforcement contribute to mangrove loss.
  • Mangroves are missing from national balance sheets, despite their role in ecosystem services and disaster mitigation.
  1. Three-Pillar Strategy for Sustainable Mangrove Stewardship
  2. Technology & Natural Capital Accounting
  • Use of satellite, drone, and AI-enabled geospatial tools to map mangrove extent and quantify ecosystem services.
  • Natural capital valuation (e.g., ₹3,535 million in Pichavaram) helps inform policy and investment decisions.
  1. Community-Centric Conservation
  • Fisherfolk and local communities possess deep ecological knowledge.
  • Empowered through Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) or Eco-Development Committees (EDCs), they become long-term custodians.
  • Locally anchored stewardship ensures resilient socio-ecological systems.
  1. Citizen Science and Public Engagement
  • Initiatives like “Mangrove Mitras” (Friends of Mangroves) promote awareness and monitoring.
  • Indicators like freshwater flow, biodiversity, and community dependence should guide adaptive management.
  • Community-driven monitoring enhances accountability and trust.

Conclusion: Mangroves as a Climate-Economic Imperative

Mangroves are not just biodiversity reserves but vital infrastructure for climate adaptation, economic resilience, and inclusive development. India must mainstream mangrove health into urban planning, national accounting, and climate financing. Sustainable stewardship must be built on a coalition of science, business, and community voices, reimagining mangroves as living assets for the future.

Way Forward

  • Incorporate mangrove value in GDP and climate policy.
  • Adopt blue carbon credits as part of India’s net-zero strategy.
  • Enforce CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone) norms with participatory governance.
  • Establish urban mangrove missions in coastal Smart Cities.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper III:
    • Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation
    • Disaster management (coastal storms, sea-level rise)
    • Biodiversity and its preservation
    • Role of technology in environmental conservation

Previous Year UPSC Questions Linkage

  • GS III (2023): “How do mangroves function as a carbon sink and why is their conservation vital in the context of climate change?”
  • GS III (2021): “Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management strategies?”
  • GS III (2020): “What are the key features of the National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)?”
  • GS III (2018): “How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helping in the conservation of flora and fauna?”

Sources:

  • The Hindu Editorial (Authors: Madhav Pai, Soumya Swaminathan, Sejal Worah)
  • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
  • WRI India & WWF India reports
  • Blue Carbon Initiative
  • India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023

Introduction: Digital Sovereignty as Strategic Autonomy

Digital sovereignty refers to a nation’s control over its digital infrastructure, data, regulations, and technological development. It has emerged as a vital pillar of national security and economic strategy. However, India’s recent Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) with the United Kingdom appears to have made several concessions in the digital domain that undermine this autonomy, raising concerns over long-term strategic interests.

Body

  1. Key Concessions in the India-U.K. FTA
  • Source Code Disclosure Concession:
    • India surrendered its right to demand ex ante source code access for foreign digital services.
    • This is a reversal of India’s long-held stance at the WTO and other forums.
    • Even the U.S. has backtracked on earlier free-trade source code non-disclosure rules to protect critical sectors.
  • Open Government Data Access:
    • India agreed to provide equal and non-discriminatory access to Open Government Data to U.K. entities.
    • While currently non-binding (“best endeavour”), this move dilutes data as a sovereign economic resource — critical in AI development and strategic analytics.
  • Ambiguity on Data Localization and Free Flow of Data:
    • India has signalled willingness to extend equivalent digital trade terms to the U.K. if offered to another nation, showing vulnerability in future negotiations.
    • These commitments may create binding precedents for future FTAs with the EU or U.S.
  1. Strategic Implications
  • Security and Regulatory Challenges:
    • Lack of source code access can impair national cybersecurity audits in AI, telecom, and healthcare sectors.
    • Foreign control over sensitive software could delay real-time safety upgrades.
  • Loss of Digital Competitiveness:
    • Government-held data is key to AI innovation. Sharing this data undermines India’s AI self-reliance and startup ecosystem.
    • Weak digital safeguards may reduce India’s leverage in global digital norm-setting.
  • Lack of Policy Cohesion:
    • India lacks a comprehensive Digital Sovereignty and Digital Industrialisation Policy.
    • Negotiations have been conducted reactively, without inputs from digital sovereignty experts or alignment with national digital goals.

Conclusion: A Strategic Reorientation Needed

In the race to conclude high-profile FTAs, India must not compromise on irreversible digital concessions. Digital trade agreements shape global rule-making, not just market access. Given its late entry into digital industrialization, India must carve out regulatory autonomy, protect digital public goods, and build a resilient domestic ecosystem. The need of the hour is a national digital sovereignty strategy, anchored in strategic foresight and guided by high-level political leadership.

Way Forward

  • Formulate a National Digital Sovereignty Framework to guide FTA negotiations.
  • Mandate participation of tech-policy experts in trade talks to safeguard long-term interests.
  • Develop India-specific digital architectures and standards, especially in AI, cybersecurity, and data governance.
  • Pursue strategic data localization with flexibility for trusted partners, in line with India’s national interest.
  • Institutionalize regular parliamentary and public scrutiny of digital trade chapters in FTAs.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II:
    • Bilateral agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
    • Effects of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests
  • GS Paper III:
    • Awareness in fields of IT and Computers
    • Role of digital infrastructure in development
    • Security challenges in cyberspace

Previous Year UPSC Questions Linkage

  • GS II (2021): “India’s relations with its neighbours have deteriorated. Examine with reference to Bangladesh and Nepal.” (Relates to bilateral diplomacy and trade-offs.)
  • GS III (2020): “Discuss different types of cybercrimes and measures to be taken to fight them.”
  • GS II (2018): “Bilateral trade agreements in the present global scenario have led to a shift in the focus of India’s foreign policy.”
  • GS III (2023 Expected Trend): Role of digital sovereignty in national security and trade

Sources:

  • Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India
  • India-UK Joint Statement (2024)
  • WTO Digital Trade Discussions
  • The Hindu Editorial by Smita Purushottam (2024)
  • U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) 2023 Digital Trade Policy Shift

Introduction

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 has initiated a paradigm shift in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) by integrating it within the formal education framework. Historically restricted to Anganwadi centres in the public sector, ECCE now sees an ambitious transformation as government schools begin preschool classes (Balvatika 1, 2, 3). This structural reform aims to enhance equity, access, and quality in early childhood development, addressing long-standing disparities in India’s educational landscape.

Body

  1. Expansion of ECCE Infrastructure in Government Schools
  • NEP 2020 targets universalisation of ECCE by 2030, expanding beyond the static network of ~14 lakh Anganwadi centres.
  • The addition of three preschool levels in government primary schools marks a massive public sector expansion.
  • The Samagra Shiksha scheme now finances preschool education; several States/UTs have started implementation, though utilisation levels vary.
  • Implications: Strategic planning in recruitment, training, and deployment of qualified ECCE professionals is necessary to ensure quality outcomes.
  1. Migration from Anganwadis to Government Preschools
  • Increasing parental preference for education-oriented preschool classes over traditional Anganwadi models is evident.
  • Case study: In Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, all primary schools now offer preschool classes; 4–6-year-olds are shifting away from Anganwadis.
  • Challenge: Anganwadis risk becoming obsolete unless they incorporate educational components meaningfully.
  • Initiative: ‘Poshan bhi Padhai bhi’ launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development aims to balance nutrition and early learning.
  • Caution: Government schools must avoid “schoolification” of play-based learning—preserving play as the core mode of preschool pedagogy is essential.
  1. Reorientation Towards 0–3 Year Age Group and Home Visits
  • Studies like the ‘Perry Preschool at 50’ (USA) and Yale-Pratham research (Odisha) stress the importance of home visits for 0–3-year-olds.
  • Current Anganwadi focus leans toward 3–6 age group due to daily centre attendance, leaving infants and mothers underserved.
  • Vision: If schools manage 3–6-year-olds, Anganwadi workers can reallocate attention to 0–3-year-olds and maternal care through targeted home visits.
  • Supported by policy voices including V.K. Paul (NITI Aayog) and N.C. Saxena (ex-IAS), this approach aligns with the POSHAN Abhiyaan’s emphasis on the first 1,000 days.

Conclusion

The NEP 2020 marks a transformational juncture in ECCE, integrating preschools into formal education while offering a renewed role for Anganwadis in catering to infant and maternal care. Realising this vision requires inter-ministerial coordination, adequate financial provisioning, and monitoring of state-level implementation. If executed effectively, India’s ECCE system could evolve into a robust, inclusive, and developmentally appropriate model—laying the foundation for lifelong learning and equitable human capital formation.

Linked UPSC Syllabus

GS Paper II – Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International Relations

  • Issues relating to development and management of social sector/services relating to education and human resources
  • Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections, particularly children

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linked

  • UPSC 2020 (GS Paper II): “National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (SDG-4) of education. Critically examine the statement.”
  • UPSC 2019 (GS Paper II): “Despite the Structural reforms initiated, the quality of primary education in India is still a cause of concern. Examine.”
  • UPSC 2018 (GS Paper II): “Strengthening the health and education sectors is essential for inclusive growth. Discuss.”

Sources:

  • NEP 2020, Ministry of Education
  • Samagra Shiksha Portal
  • Ministry of Women and Child Development – Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi (2023)
  • Pratham & Yale Study on ECCE (2021)
  • Economic Survey 2023–24
  • Government of India’s POSHAN Abhiyaan Reports

Introduction: The Spectacle of Virality and the Erosion of Privacy

In today’s hyper-connected world, the boundaries between public and private are increasingly blurred. The Coldplay concert ‘kiss-cam’ incident in Boston — where a video capturing two individuals presumed to be involved in an affair went viral, resulting in reputational damage and resignation — serves as a case study of the complex interplay between privacy, digital surveillance, and moral spectacle. It compels us to revisit foundational questions around consent, context, ethics, and accountability in the digital public sphere.

Body

  1. Participatory Surveillance and Spectator Morality
  • Media theorist Mark Andrejevic coined the term “lateral surveillance” — where ordinary people monitor each other using digital tools.
  • This Coldplay incident was not isolated; similar viral content in India’s Delhi Metro (2023) led to trolling and moral policing, disproportionately targeting women and marginalized individuals.
  • Digital virality often thrives on emotionally provocative content, not truth — as explained by Shoshana Zuboff’s “Surveillance Capitalism” model.
  1. Contextual Integrity and the Ethics of Sharing
  • Philosopher Helen Nissenbaum asserts privacy is not secrecy, but control over personal information within specific contexts.
  • A concertgoer does not expect a momentary expression to become global spectacle, yet algorithm-driven platforms transform these private gestures into memeable content.
  • Daniel Trottier’s “Digital Vigilantism” further captures the danger of informal, crowd-sourced justice — where judgment precedes facts and ruins lives.
  1. Platform Architecture and Algorithmic Amplification
  • Platforms like TikTok, Instagram, X prioritise engagement over ethics, using algorithms that push emotionally charged content.
  • As Nancy Baym notes, platforms shape not just our consumption but our behavior — nudging users towards performance rather than reflection.
  • This problem is worsened in India, where digital literacy gaps coexist with caste, gender, and religious hierarchies, making vulnerable communities easy targets of online harassment.
  1. The Failure of Legacy Media
  • Media houses increasingly echo viral social media narratives without adequate verification, as seen in the CEO resignation case.
  • This inversion of journalistic ethics, where virality precedes truth, raises questions about the media’s gatekeeping role in the digital age.

Conclusion: Building an Ethical Digital Culture

The Coldplay episode underscores the need for a deeper reflection on digital citizenship. Legal frameworks like defamation and privacy laws exist but are inadequate against algorithmically distributed harm. The solution lies in:

  • Enhancing public digital ethics awareness, especially among youth.
  • Platforms deploying AI-based tools to flag and moderate sensitive or potentially harmful content.
  • Journalism reaffirming its ethical core — where verification, proportionality, and context precede publication.
  • Users cultivating empathy, acknowledging that every share or comment could carry irreversible consequences.

Ultimately, in a world where every fleeting moment risks becoming viral spectacle, building a digital ecosystem anchored in empathy, restraint, and responsibility is not a luxury, but a necessity.

Previous Year Questions (PYQs) Linkage

  • GS Paper II (2023): “Discuss the ethical concerns surrounding the use of surveillance and data collection in modern governance.”
  • GS Paper IV (2019): “What do you understand by the term ‘digital ethics’? How can they be instilled in society?”
  • GS Paper II (2017): “Discuss the challenges to media ethics in the age of digital technology.”
  • GS Paper IV (2021): “Online anonymity has both protective and harmful implications. Discuss the ethical dimensions involved.”

Introduction

The Indian formal manufacturing sector has witnessed a sharp increase in contractualisation of labour, with the share of contract workers rising from 20% in 1999–2000 to 40.7% in 2022–23 (Annual Survey of Industries). While contract employment offers operational flexibility, excessive reliance on it—especially via third-party contractors—has been shown to adversely impact labour productivity, worker welfare, and industrial growth. This trend raises concerns over the long-term sustainability of India’s growth model, especially as it aspires to become a global manufacturing hub.

Body

  1. Exploitative Nature of Contractual Employment
  • Contract workers are typically excluded from core labour laws under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, weakening their protections against layoffs or arbitrary dismissals.
  • In 2018–19, contract workers earned 14.47% less than regular workers, with the gap reaching 31% in large firms.
  • Labour cost differences widen in several industries, with contract labour costs being 78–85% lower, indicating systemic exploitation.
  1. Negative Impact on Productivity
  • Contract Labour-Intensive (CLI) enterprises had 31% lower labour productivity than Regular Labour-Intensive (RLI) firms.
  • Productivity gaps were starkest in small enterprises (<100 workers) (36%) and labour-intensive firms (42%).
  • High labour turnover and lack of investment in training due to short-term employment further discourage innovation and skill accumulation.
  1. Exceptions and Sectoral Variation
  • Some high-skill CLI enterprises recorded 5–20% productivity gains, especially in large, capital-intensive sectors.
  • However, such enterprises account for only 20% of formal manufacturing, leaving 80% vulnerable to the negative effects of informalisation.
  1. Policy Efforts and Gaps
  • The Industrial Relations Code, 2020 allows direct fixed-term hiring, aiming to curb third-party exploitation while increasing flexibility.
  • Yet, implementation remains pending, and labour unions fear this may accelerate informalisation.
  • The PM Rojgar Protsahan Yojana (PMRPY) incentivised formal job creation by subsidising EPF/EPS contributions, but was discontinued in March 2022, despite benefiting over 1 crore workers.

Conclusion

India’s manufacturing sector needs a balance between flexibility and formality. While contract labour can offer agility in operations, cost-cutting practices that compromise productivity and worker welfare are unsustainable. Policies must promote formalisation, skill development, and statutory protection, especially for vulnerable workers. Reviving and updating schemes like PMRPY, along with expediting labour code implementation, can pave the way toward a high-productivity, equitable industrial ecosystem.

Relevant Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • GS Paper III (2023): Informalisation of work has increased in the post-liberalisation era in India. Examine its impact on productivity and worker welfare.
  • GS Paper III (2020): Examine the challenges and prospects of labour reforms in the context of promoting ease of doing business and ensuring job security.
  • GS Paper III (2015): Has recent labour law reform ensured employment security, wage security, and social security? Critically analyse.
The Changing Nature of Warfare in the Age of Technology

Introduction:

The 21st-century battlefield has evolved beyond conventional kinetic warfare into a multidomain theatre marked by cyber operations, AI-driven systems, drone warfare, and hypersonic weapons. This transformation is driven by geopolitical upheavals post-9/11, the Russia-Ukraine war, West Asia conflicts, and India’s own skirmishes, such as the India-Pakistan conflict of May 2025. As M.K. Narayanan, former NSA, asserts, we are now in an era where dominance is shaped more by digital and autonomous capabilities than physical force.

Body:

  1. Decline of Traditional Warfare Paradigms
  • The Peace of Westphalia (1648) and post-WWII global order are weakening.
  • Post-Cold War era failed to ensure global peace, with new types of asymmetric warfare emerging (e.g., terrorism, proxy wars).
  • The illusion of peace post-1945 was exposed through regional conflicts—Vietnam, Korea, North Africa, and the Balkans.
  1. New Epoch of Conflict: From Desert Storm to 9/11
  • Operation Desert Storm (1991)  marked the beginning of three-dimensional precision warfare, setting the stage for high-tech conflicts.
  • 9/11 attacks (2001) opened space for the West to engage in preemptive interventions (Afghanistan, Iraq) under the rhetoric of self-defense.
  • These events signaled a shift from rules-based warfare to perception-based justifications.
  1. Contemporary Global Conflicts and Military Innovations
  • Russia-Ukraine war (2022 onwards) reflects the changing tactics: widespread use of drones, loitering munitions, cyber offensives, and AI-led targeting.
  • West Asia conflicts display the dominance of non-state actors employing sophisticated drone and cyber tools.
  1. India’s Wake-Up Call: May 2025 India-Pakistan Conflict
  • Featured the use of:
    • Fixed-wing drones, loitering munitions
    • GPS-guided and laser-guided bombs
    • Advanced air-to-air missiles (PL-15 by Pakistan, BrahMos by India)
  • Indicates India’s growing reliance on high-tech warfare but also exposes limitations in indigenous capabilities and tactical doctrines.
  1. Strategic Shift towards Network-Centric and AI Warfare
  • Modern warfare requires:
    • AI-enabled decision-making
    • Cyber capabilities
    • Hypersonic missile systems
    • Multi-domain operations
  • Traditional hierarchical command structures are giving way to agile, decentralized, network-centric systems.

Conclusion:

As global conflict dynamics transform, India must revamp its military doctrines, accelerate indigenous defence production, and adopt AI, cyber, and drone capabilities. Countries like China are already deploying sixth-generation fighter technologies, while India lags behind with delayed indigenous systems and overdependence on foreign platforms. Future wars will not be won through brute force but through autonomous systems, precision targeting, and strategic digital superiority.

Way Forward:

  • Rethink military modernization plans aligned with new warfare domains.
  • Enhance R&D in AI, cyber warfare, and drone technology.
  • Accelerate indigenous manufacturing of UAVs, missiles, and hypersonic systems.
  • Establish multi-domain command structures for synchronized warfare across air, land, sea, cyber, and space.
  • Promote civil-military synergy and public-private partnerships in defence innova

Syllabus Linkage – GS Paper II & III:

  • GS II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
  • GS III: Security challenges and their management in border areas; Linkages of organized crime with terrorism; Role of technology in internal security.

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS III (2023): How is India addressing the challenges in developing indigenous defence technology?
  • GS III (2021): Analyse the multidimensional challenges posed by external state and non-state actors to internal security.
  • GS III (2019): Cross-border terrorism is a persistent security threat in India. Discuss the measures taken by the government to counter this.

Sources:

  • Editorial by M.K. Narayanan (The Hindu, July 2024)
  • Ministry of Defence Annual Report 2023-24
  • DRDO, PIB Defence Releases
  • Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Reports
  • India’s Defence Acquisition Procedure 2020

Introduction: Buddhism as a Geopolitical Frontier

In the evolving landscape of India-China rivalry, a subtle yet potent dimension of geopolitical contestation has emerged in the Himalayas, not over oil or territory, but over Buddhism and spiritual legitimacy. As Nirupama Rao points out, the region’s Buddhist traditions—rooted in peace and meditation—are now entwined with statecraft and strategic influence. The looming succession of the Dalai Lama has amplified this battle for influence across India’s Himalayan borderlands and beyond.

Body: Faith as a Tool of Strategy and Sovereignty

  1. China’s Buddhist Statecraft:
    • Since the 1950s, China has co-opted Tibetan Buddhism, marginalizing independent lamas and institutionalizing control over reincarnations.
    • The 2007 decree asserting that all “Living Buddhas” require state approval reflects Beijing’s attempt to legitimize spiritual authority through political power.
    • China now maintains a lamas database, funds Buddhist infrastructure across the Himalayas (Nepal, Bhutan), and hosts religious conferences to cultivate loyalty among Himalayan monks.
    • It plans to appoint a state-approved Dalai Lama using the Qing-era “Golden Urn” tradition, likely setting the stage for two rival Dalai Lamas.
  2. India’s Fragmented Buddhist Diplomacy:
    • India has historically hosted the Tibetan exile government and the 14th Dalai Lama since 1959, earning moral credibility but lacking strategic coherence.
    • Recent efforts include promoting pilgrimage circuits and asserting its identity as the Buddha’s land of origin. However, India’s approach remains reactive and decentralised compared to China’s.
    • The looming spiritual succession provides India both a strategic opportunity and a diplomatic challenge.
  • Regional Ramifications:
    • A schism in Tibetan leadership may lead Himalayan populations—in Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan—to choose spiritual allegiance, which could reshape political alignments.
    • China claims Tawang citing its Tibetan heritage, asserting that its cultural linkage justifies territorial claims.
    • In Nepal, Chinese investments in Lumbini aim to root Chinese-friendly narratives around the Buddha’s legacy.
  1. Internal Buddhist Divisions as Strategic Avenues:
    • China and India have aligned themselves with different Karmapas of the Karma Kagyu sect.
    • China supports groups such as the Dorje Shugden sect, marginalized by the Dalai Lama, to undermine the exile authority.
  2. The Himalayan Battlefield of Soft Power:
    • In remote terrains where military posturing is limited, monasteries and monastic leadership serve as power brokers.
    • A lama’s allegiance can shift loyalty of an entire region, becoming a soft-power asset or liability.

Conclusion: Prayer Beads in the Place of Missiles

The Himalayas, often viewed through a strategic-military lens, are increasingly becoming a spiritual battleground where soft power equates to sovereignty. As China accelerates its religious diplomacy, India must shift from fragmented initiatives to a cohesive Buddhist strategy rooted in cultural leadership and cross-border outreach. The impending Dalai Lama succession will test India’s resolve, offering a rare chance to solidify its influence while fending off China’s encroachment through spiritual legitimacy. The future of Himalayan peace and identity might well depend on who controls the reincarnation narrative — not just in Lhasa, but across the clouds of the geopolitical Himalayas.

Relevant PYQs (Previous Year Questions):

  1. UPSC CSE Mains 2020 – GS Paper 2: “Soft power is an important aspect of India’s foreign policy.” Discuss India’s efforts in promoting cultural and spiritual diplomacy.
  2. UPSC CSE Mains 2018 – GS Paper 2: “India’s foreign policy has increasingly been shaped by its neighbourhood.” Analyse India’s evolving relations with Himalayan nations in light of rising Chinese influence.
  3. UPSC CSE Mains 2016 – GS Paper 2: “The Indian government must take proactive steps in strengthening its relations with neighbouring countries to counterbalance China.” Evaluate this statement in the context of India’s soft power.
  4. UPSC CSE Mains 2013 – GS Paper 2: Discuss the role of religious and cultural linkages in the evolution of India’s foreign policy with East and Southeast Asia.

Source: Nirupama Rao, China, India and the Conflict over Buddhism, The Hindu Editorial.

Introduction: Trade Diplomacy Meets Agricultural Sovereignty

India and the United States, despite their growing strategic convergence, continue to grapple with persistent deadlocks in bilateral trade negotiations, particularly over agriculture and automotive components. With deadlines nearing, both sides have yet to reconcile national priorities with global trade expectations. The crux of the disagreement lies in India’s protectionist stance on agriculture versus U.S. demands for market access, a dilemma with broader implications for future U.S. trade deals.

Body: The Agricultural Stalemate and Strategic Calculations

  1. India’s Firm Stand on Agricultural Protection:
  • India has consistently resisted opening its agriculture sector to foreign imports to safeguard the interests of domestic farmers.
  • Indian negotiators fear that any precedent of liberalisation could lead to increased vulnerabilities for small and marginal farmers, especially in sensitive sectors like dairy and cereals.
  1. U.S. Strategic Interests:
  • The U.S. views a trade deal with India as a template for future trade negotiations with the EU and Japan.
  • Excluding agriculture from the India deal could weaken the U.S. negotiating position globally, hence Washington’s insistence on market access.
  1. Trade Deal Uncertainty and Presidential Surprises:
  • Indian officials expect a potential surprise announcement by U.S. President Donald Trump, akin to similar moves in Vietnam and Indonesia.
  • These announcements were made unilaterally by the U.S. after personal conversations with respective heads of state, and did not reflect prior negotiation outcomes.
  1. Automotive Components: Another Sticky Point:
  • While India is cautious on agriculture, the U.S. refuses to reduce import duties on auto components to zero, another crucial hurdle delaying a comprehensive agreement.
  1. From Mini-Deal to Broader BTA:
  • Indian negotiators are now focusing on a broader Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA), expected to mature by September or October, instead of rushing a mini-deal by August 1.
  • However, the door remains open for a last-minute deal driven by political optics rather than procedural consensus.

Conclusion: Balancing Trade with Domestic Interests

The India–U.S. trade deadlock, especially over agriculture, highlights the complex interplay of domestic imperatives and international diplomacy. India’s reluctance stems from its need to protect vulnerable agrarian communities, while the U.S. seeks consistency in its global trade posture. As negotiations oscillate between mini-deals and broader BTAs, the outcome will significantly influence not only bilateral economic ties but also the future architecture of global trade, particularly in sectors that intertwine sovereignty with sustainability.

Relevant PYQs (Previous Year Questions):

  1. UPSC CSE Mains 2021 – GS Paper 2: “India’s economic interests often conflict with its strategic partnerships.” Critically examine in the context of India–U.S. trade relations.
  2. UPSC CSE Mains 2020 – GS Paper 3: Discuss the impact of global trade agreements on the Indian agriculture sector. How can India balance WTO commitments with farmer welfare?
  3. UPSC CSE Mains 2018 – GS Paper 2: “India’s trade policies reflect the growing assertion of national interest in an interdependent world.” Analyze with examples.
  4. UPSC CSE Mains 2017 – GS Paper 2: Examine the role of bilateral and regional trade agreements in shaping India’s foreign policy.

Source: T.C.A. Sharad Raghavan, “India-U.S. Trade Deal: Deadlock continues over agriculture”, The Hindu Editorial.

Constitutional Accountability vs Political Misuse: Examining the 130th Constitution Amendment Bill (GS Paper II – Polity & Governance)

Introduction

Political executive accountability is a foundational principle of India’s parliamentary democracy. However, the persistence of Ministers with serious criminal charges in government undermines public faith and constitutional morality. The Constitution (One Hundred and Thirtieth Amendment) Bill seeks to address this concern by amending Articles 75, 164 and 239AA, enabling automatic removal of Union and State Ministers — including the Prime Minister and Chief Ministers — if they remain in custody for 30 consecutive days for offences punishable up to five years or more.

While aimed at cleansing politics, contentious provisions around arrest and detention have triggered apprehension of misuse against political rivals — posing a dilemma between ethical governance and principles of liberty, fair procedure, and federal balance.

Body

Core Provisions of the Amendment

Provision

Application

Trigger

Outcome

Art. 75 Amendments

Union Ministers

Custody ≥ 30 days

Removal by President on PM’s advice (or automatic cessation)

Art. 164 Amendments

State Ministers

Same

Removal by Governor on CM’s advice

Art. 239AA Amendments

Delhi

Applies to CM & Ministers

Automatic removal or resignation mandate

Why Oppositions Finds It Contentious

Opposition concerns hinge on:

  1. 1. Arrest as a Disqualification Parameter
  • Arrest powers are discretionary under CrPC/BNSS → “may arrest” does not equal “must arrest”
  • Courts stress that arrest must be justified
    • Joginder Kumar (1994) – arrest cannot be mechanical
    • Arnesh Kumar (2014) – mandate for written reasons before arrest
    • National Police Commission Report (1977) – 60% arrests unnecessary

Risk → Opposing Ministers can be arrested on flimsy grounds → disqualified without conviction.

  1. 2. Detention for 30 Consecutive Days
  • Bail denial often influenced by subjective factors:
    • “Seriousness of offence”
    • Minister’s ability to “influence witnesses”
    • Judge’s liberty stance

➡ Bail jurisprudence (“bail is rule, jail is exception”) often not followed in practice.

  1. 3. Special Criminal Statutes with Harsh Bail Norms

Statutes like PMLA, UAPA, NDPS impose:

  • reverse burden of proof
  • “twin conditions” of bail → Example: Manish Sisodia remained 17 months under detention before bail.

➤ Thus, under such laws, 30 days is easily surpassed → weaponisation likely.

  1. 4. Default Bail Complication
  • CrPC Sec.167(2)/BNSS Sec.187: Bail mandatory if charge-sheet not filed within 60–90 days
  • But remand is routinely extended — exceeding 30 days

➡ Disqualification before default bail becomes available → disproportionate impact.

Governance Stakes and Federal Implications

Positive Governance Argument

  • Ensures ethical politics
  • Removes Ministers under serious criminal cloud → aligns with SC directions in Association for Democratic Reforms cases on criminalisation of politics

But…

Principle Threatened

How?

Federalism

Central agencies may target Opposition-ruled States

Separation of Powers

Executive advice determines continuance in office even before trial

Presumption of Innocence

Minister punished without conviction

Due Process (Art. 21)

Automatic cessation undermines judicial discretion

➡ Constitutional morality must be strengthened without sacrificing personal liberty and political neutrality.

Way Forward

  • Introduce judicial oversight before disqualification (e.g., review committee headed by a retired judge)
  • Higher threshold than mere arrest — require framing of charges
  • Safeguards against politically motivated arrests by:
    • Time-bound high-level approval for Minister arrest
    • Application only for heinous offences involving moral turpitude
  • Strengthen due process: mandatory bail hearings within 1–2 weeks
  • Strengthen autonomy of police and investigating agencies

Conclusion

Political purity cannot come at the cost of constitutional liberties. While the Bill’s objective to curb criminalisation of politics is laudable, the 30-day custody rule combined with arrest-based disqualification risks transforming law enforcement into an instrument of political elimination.

Thus, reforms must strike a balance — ensuring executive accountability while safeguarding constitutional fairness and democratic competition. A robust legal framework must restrain the potential misuse of police powers and uphold “procedure established by law” consistent with the dignity and rights of public office holders.

Linkages to UPSC Mains Syllabus

  • GS-II: Indian Constitution, Parliament & State Legislatures, Federalism, Criminalisation of Politics
  • GS-II: Separation of Powers, Executive Accountability, Pressure Groups

PYQs for Practice

  1. 1. Discuss the role of constitutional morality in ensuring executive accountability in India. (GS-II, 2023)
  2. 2. “Arrest is a draconian measure and must be exercised sparingly.” Analyse in context of criminal justice reforms. (GS-II, 2022)
  3. 3. Criminalisation of politics is the greatest threat to Indian democracy. Comment. (GS-II, 2019)
  4. 4. Examine how special criminal laws like PMLA/UAPA impact personal liberty and due process. (GS-II, 2021)
  5. 5. How far is automatic disqualification of legislators before conviction consistent with the right to reputation? (GS-II, 2017)

 

 

Introduction

The relationship between law and morality has been central to jurisprudential debates — from the Hart–Devlin controversy to Indian constitutional interpretation. Law may lead morality (as in abolishing untouchability) or follow it (as in gender equality). Modern constitutional discourse has revived a crucial concept — constitutional morality — which seeks to ensure that governance remains anchored in the Constitution’s values rather than majoritarian impulses. As Dr. B.R. Ambedkar warned, democracy in India is only a “top-dressing on undemocratic soil”; constitutional morality must be cultivated to protect justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

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Conceptual Roots: Morality in Governance

From ancient dharma and Aram in Tirukkural to modern constitutionalism:

  • Law and morality are intertwined
  • Courts recognise that law must embody what is fair, right and just (P. Rathinam v. Union of India, 1994)

George Grote’s 1846 articulation inspired Ambedkar:

Constitutional morality means reverence to constitutional forms, rule of law, free criticism, and trust in institutions even amidst political conflict.

➡ Not a natural sentiment, but a democratic habit to be nurtured.

Constitutional Morality vs. Public/Popular Morality

Basis

Constitutional Morality

Public Morality

Source

Constitution, rule of law, rights

Majority social beliefs, customs

Protection

Minorities, dissent, vulnerable

Majoritarian sentiment can suppress rights

Enforcement

Courts, constitutional offices

Social/community pressure

Thus, constitutional morality acts as a shield against mob moralism.

Dicey’s Distinction: Law vs. Conventions

Prof. Dicey classified:

  • Law of the constitution → enforceable by courts
  • Conventions/constitutional morality → political norms, not usually justiciable

But violations:

  • Carry serious political consequences
  • Reveal democratic decline (S.P. Gupta Case)

➡ Even if not always legally actionable, the breach can trigger accountability in Parliament, media, electorate.

Judicial Expansions in India

Various judgments have developed the scope:

Case

Principle Shaped

Manoj Narula v. Union of India

Ministers should uphold integrity; PM expected not to induct tainted persons

Indian Young Lawyers Association (Sabarimala)

Public morality must yield to constitutional morality (later referred to larger bench)

State (NCT of Delhi) v. Union of India

Cooperative federalism as part of constitutional morality

Puttaswamy (Privacy)

Rule of law and dignity central to governance

Core idea: Constitutional morality ensures fairness, equality, non-arbitrariness in exercise of public power.

When Courts Invoke Constitutional Morality

Courts rely on the concept to:

  • Check arbitrary power
  • Protect individual rights against cultural prejudices
  • Strengthen democratic accountability
  • Prevent erosion of constitutional institutions

Example:

  • Striking down Section 377 — upheld dignity over public prejudice

Yet, courts recognise limits:

  • Cannot rewrite constitutional text based purely on morality (Narula case – no judicial disqualification rule in Art. 75)

➡ Judicial restraint ensures morality does not convert into judicial overreach.

Why It Matters Today

India faces:

  • Polarised politics
  • Erosion of reasoned debate
  • Declining trust in institutions
  • Rising majoritarian pressures

Here, constitutional morality mandates:

  • protection of minorities
  • independence of institutions
  • accountability of constitutional officers
  • transparent decision-making

Without it, constitutional democracy risks sliding into electoral authoritarianism.

Conclusion

Constitutional morality is more than judicial doctrine — it is the ethical bloodstream of the Indian Constitution. It transforms constitutional guarantees into lived realities by ensuring that governance remains rooted in justice, equality, and inclusion. As Ambedkar cautioned, democracy survives not by laws alone but by habits of constitutional loyalty.

Thus, the future of the Republic depends on nurturing constitutional morality among:

  • Citizens → informed participation
  • Lawmakers → duty-bound governance
  • Judiciary → principled guardianship

Only then will India’s democracy be substantive, not merely a symbolic “top-dressing” over undemocratic soil.

PYQs for Practice (GS-II)

  1. 1. What is meant by constitutional morality? How does it act as a check on majoritarian impulses? (GS-II)
  2. 2. “Constitutional conventions, though unenforceable, are essential for constitutional governance.” Discuss. (GS-II)
  3. 3. Examine how constitutional morality has shaped judicial interventions in expanding Fundamental Rights in India. (GS-II)
  4. 4. Discuss the role of constitutional morality in strengthening federal values in India. (GS-II)

Introduction

India’s constitutional history is experiencing a subtle but politically charged revisionism. A growing narrative claims that Sir Benegal Narsing Rau — the Constitutional Adviser — was the “real architect” of the Constitution, while Dr. B.R. Ambedkar merely polished a completed draft. However, this reinterpretation risks diluting the transformative social vision Ambedkar infused into the founding document. Understanding their actual contributions is essential — not only to preserve historical accuracy but also to uphold the democratic ideals embedded in the Constitution.

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  1. Distinct Roles: Technical Foundation vs Political-Moral Leadership

Sir B.N. Rau’s role was preparatory and technical:

  • Appointed Constitutional Adviser in July 1946
  • Drew from Government of India Act, 1935 and global constitutions
  • Consulted jurists like Felix Frankfurter and Harold Laski
  • Delivered a “rough draft” (243 Articles, 13 Schedules) in October 1947

Crucially:

  • Rau had no seat in the Constituent Assembly
  • No political mandate or role in public debate

Ambedkar’s responsibilities were vastly different:

  • Chair of the Drafting Committee
  • Defended every clause through 141 days in the Assembly
  • Navigated Partition violence, Mahatma Gandhi’s assassination, and ideological divides
  • Built consensus among conflicting interests

➡Rau laid groundwork; Ambedkar transformed it into a moral and political covenant.

  1. Ambedkar Acknowledged Contributions — But as a Starting Point

Ambedkar himself credited Rau in the Constituent Assembly on November 25, 1949, calling his work a rough draft, and praised:

  • Drafting Committee members
  • Chief Draftsman S.N. Mukherjee

This only highlights Ambedkar’s humility — not a diminished role. Rau never claimed authorship; his correspondence shows mutual respect and cooperation.

  1. The Political Motive Behind Revisionism

The movement to crown Rau as “Father of the Constitution” reflects:

  • Discomfort with Dalit leadership in shaping independent India
  • An attempt to convert a social revolution into a bureaucratic exercise
  • Reassertion of caste privilege over constitutional authorship

➡To erase Ambedkar is to erase the Constitution’s soul — dignity, equality, social transformation.

  1. Ambedkar’s Moral Centrality

Ambedkar personified:

  • Representation of the oppressed
  • A constitutional philosophy anchored in liberty, equality and fraternity
  • Rejection of purely textual legalism

His role was secured due to Gandhiji’s insistence — acknowledging that legitimacy required Scheduled Caste participation. Ambedkar’s leadership prevented deeper fragmentation during Partition-era turmoil.

His warning on social and economic inequality remains foundational:

“We must remove this contradiction at the earliest… or those who suffer from inequality will blow up the structure of political democracy.”

His vision remains critical to sustaining democracy today.

  1. Why Ambedkar Matters

Ambedkar shaped:

  • Fundamental Rights
  • Directive Principles
  • Affirmative Action
  • The constitutional ethos of inclusive citizenship

He gave India not just a legal document, but a moral mission — a roadmap to social justice.

Rau was an exceptional constitutional engineer. Ambedkar was — and remains — its architect and conscience.

Conclusion

Historical truth affirms that India’s Constitution required both Rau’s structural expertise and Ambedkar’s transformative vision. But the attempt to elevate Rau above Ambedkar betrays the social foundation of the republic. The Constitution emerged not from colonial bureaucracy but through a struggle for justice amidst Partition and caste oppression.

To diminish Ambedkar’s centrality is to deny the Republic its founding promise — equality and dignity for all. Rau deserves gratitude; Ambedkar deserves reverence. The Indian Constitution is a living embodiment of Ambedkar’s moral imagination.

To deny that truth is to deny the Republic itself.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2021): “Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution is limited by its basic structure.” Analyse in light of the Constituent Assembly’s vision.
  • GS2 (2018): Discuss how the Constitution reflects the social revolution envisioned by the national movement.
  • GS1 (2020): Evaluate Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions to the making of the Constitution and political reform in India.

Introduction

Debates on end-of-life choices have intensified globally, especially after the United Kingdom’s recent Terminally Ill Adults (End of Life) Bill enabling physician-assisted dying under strict safeguards. India, while recognising passive euthanasia through landmark Supreme Court rulings (Aruna Shanbaug, Common Cause 2018), continues to reject active euthanasia due to ethical, socio-economic, and systemic concerns. However, despite progressive intent, India’s current passive euthanasia process remains inaccessible and complex, raising critical questions on the constitutional promise of living — and dying — with dignity.

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Passive Euthanasia in India: Legal but Impractical

Passive euthanasia involves withdrawal of life-support when treatment only prolongs suffering — a recognition that artificial prolongation does not amount to dignity.

Yet, major hurdles persist:

  • Cumbersome procedures:
    – Advance directives require judicial validation
    – Dual medical board approvals delay decision-making
  • Lack of awareness among patients and families
  • Doctors face legal risks due to unclear implementation
  • Families opt for informal decisions outside the legal framework

Thus, the current system, though legally endorsed, often defeats compassionate intent, forcing prolonged suffering or undocumented medical choices.

Indian Context vs the UK Model

The UK Bill rests on strong institutional arrangements:

  • Universal healthcare (NHS)
  • Trained palliative care network
  • Independent regulatory oversight

India’s ground realities differ sharply:

  • Fragmented healthcare system
  • Low palliative care coverage (<5% patients access it)
  • Religious and cultural sensitivities
  • Economic vulnerabilities of elderly dependents

Introducing active euthanasia could risk abuse or coercion, especially where medical costs drive decisions. Indian jurisprudence under Article 21 distinguishes between the right to die with dignity and a right to be killed, reflecting ethical conservatism aligned with social conditions.

Reforming Passive Euthanasia: A Pragmatic Middle Path

  1. Digital overhaul of Advance Directives
    • National portal linked to Aadhaar
    • Easy creation, modification, or revocation
    • Treating physician certifies competence and intent online
  2. Streamlined hospital-based approvals
    • Ethics committees including:
    • Senior doctors
    • Palliative care specialist
    • Neutral external member
    • Decision within 48 hours, with escalation only if necessary
  3. Decentralised real-time oversight
    • Instead of ineffective ombudsman structures
    • Digital dashboards for monitoring cases
    • Independent health commissioners/auditors for supervision
  4. Strong safeguards retained
    • Cooling-off period
    • Psychological evaluation
    • Mandatory palliative care review
  5. Capacity building
    • Medical education to incorporate ethics and end-of-life law
    • Clear legal indemnity to doctors following due process
  6. Public awareness campaigns
    • Advance care planning must become socially acceptable
    • Trust and transparency reduce fear of misuse

These reforms align with WHO guidance and global best practices while remaining culturally suitable.

Conclusion

India must ensure that the constitutional right to dignity extends to the end of life. Instead of entering the ethically contentious terrain of active euthanasia, India should focus on strengthening passive euthanasia protocols by making them accessible, swift, accountable, and humane. A digital-first approach, integrated medical-ethical oversight, and improved palliative care can transform legal rights into lived realities. Reforming the framework is not merely legal housekeeping — it is a moral imperative to alleviate suffering while preserving autonomy and safeguarding the vulnerable.

UPSC Mains Relevance

  • GS II: Health governance, Judiciary, Fundamental Rights, Public Policy
  • GS IV: Medical ethics, autonomy, compassion, vulnerability

PYQs for Practice

  1. 2022 – Medical ethics in end-of-life care: Discuss with reference to passive euthanasia.
  2. 2019 – “Right to life includes right to die with dignity.” Analyse in the context of judicial decisions.
  3. 2016 – Discuss ethical and legal issues involved in euthanasia and advance directives.

 Introduction

The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), India’s premier recruiting institution for higher civil services, completes a remarkable century since its establishment on October 1, 1926. Conceived initially under the Government of India Act, 1919 and operationalized through the recommendations of the Lee Commission (1924), the idea of an autonomous and impartial recruitment body reflected India’s foundational belief in fairness, meritocracy and constitutional governance. Over the past hundred years — from colonial limitations to a pivotal role in independent India — the UPSC has shaped the administrative architecture of the Republic by selecting competent and ethical civil servants. Its journey underscores India’s enduring trust in a transparent and merit-based system that ensures the best talent serves the nation.

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Historical Legacy: From Colonial Framework to Constitutional Guardian

The Public Service Commission set up in 1926 under Sir Ross Barker began with restricted authority. The Government of India Act, 1935 elevated its stature as the Federal Public Service Commission, granting Indians a greater role in administration. After the Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950, Article 315 accorded it full constitutional status as the UPSC.

From just a few examinations in the early decades, it now recruits for a diverse range of services — civil, engineering, medical, statistical, forest and more — becoming one of the world’s most respected recruitment institutions. While its scope has greatly expanded, its mandate remains unchanged: to ensure that public service rests on competence and character.

Upholding Core Values: Trust, Integrity and Fairness

The Commission’s legitimacy stems from three core principles:

Pillar

Contribution to Nation-Building

Trust

Assured that merit alone determines success

Integrity

Protection from political/external interference; confidentiality of processes

Fairness

Level playing field for aspirants irrespective of geography, class, language or privilege

In a diverse nation marked by socio-economic gaps, the UPSC examinations are widely regarded as one of the few systems where opportunity is genuinely equal. This resonates with the Bhagavad Gita’s ideal — duty carried out without fear or favour — reinforcing institutional neutrality.

Civil Services Exam: Scale, Diversity and Complexity

The UPSC conducts one of the world’s largest and most sophisticated competitive examinations — the Civil Services Examination (CSE):

  • 10–12 lakh aspirants sit for the Preliminary stage annually
  • Candidates may choose from 48 optional subjects
  • 22 languages recognized by the Constitution permitted for written answers
  • 2,500+ venues across India for Prelims
  • Special provisions for differently-abled candidates
  • Anonymous evaluation by subject experts nationwide

What makes UPSC exceptional is its ability to map candidates from multiple disciplines and multiple languages into a single unified merit list — year after year, even amid unprecedented challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic. It exemplifies high-quality governance, efficiency and reliability.

Behind this precision lie thousands of paper setters, evaluators, and administrative teams — the silent custodians of India’s meritocracy — whose expertise ensures accuracy and credibility in outcomes.

UPSC and the “Indian Dream”

Over the decades, aspirants have come from diverse socio-economic and regional backgrounds — from remote tribal districts to metropolitan cities — symbolizing that hard work and talent alone can transform lives. It has become a ladder of opportunity that integrates India’s youth aspirations into national progress.

Civil servants selected through this system have contributed immensely to:

  • Crisis management
  • Economic reforms
  • Infrastructural growth
  • Social welfare implementation
  • Environmental stewardship
  • Invisible but crucial everyday governance

Their work touches every citizen, reinforcing UPSC’s role in nation-building.

Reforms for the Future: Adapting to New-Age Governance

As India prepares for emerging challenges driven by technology, globalisation and governance innovation, UPSC continues to modernize:

  • Online Application System for ease and accessibility
  • Face-recognition tools to eliminate impersonation
  • Process reforms aligned with emerging administrative needs
  • PRATIBHA Setu initiative — connecting interview-stage aspirants to government career opportunities
  • Planned use of AI and digital technologies while upholding integrity and transparency

These reforms reflect UPSC’s commitment to remain relevant, future-ready and globally benchmarked.

Conclusion

The centenary of the UPSC is both a celebration of legacy and a reaffirmation of responsibility. Over the last 100 years, the Commission has upheld the gold standard of meritocracy, ensuring India’s governance is steered by the most capable minds. Going forward, UPSC remains committed to evolving with time while safeguarding the principles of trust, integrity and fairness. As a constitutional institution carrying the weight of national expectations, the UPSC will continue to ensure that public service in India remains a domain where competence prevails, democracy strengthens, and the aspirations of millions find a dignified path to serve the nation.

Introduction

India and Nepal share a unique blend of cultural affinity, open borders, and deep economic interdependence. Despite this, Nepal’s structural economic vulnerabilities — limited industrialisation, dependence on remittances, and import-heavy trade — have often constrained bilateral trade potential. In October 2025, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced three measures aimed at promoting rupee internationalisation and easing cross-border financial flows. For Nepal, these measures carry strategic economic implications: improved access to INR liquidity, reduced friction in India-bound trade, and a hedge against U.S. dollar volatility. If effectively executed, they can reboot India-Nepal economic ties toward greater stability and mutual prosperity.

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  1. 1. The Three Key RBI Reforms

RBI initiative

Impact for Nepal

✔ Allowing authorised dealer banks to lend INR to non-residents from Nepal, Bhutan & Sri Lanka

Solves credit constraints in Nepal-India trade

✔ Allowing Special Rupee Vostro Accounts to invest in Indian corporate bonds & commercial papers

Attracts Nepal’s surplus liquidity & enhances financial integration

✔ Transparent reference rate for India’s major trading currencies

Facilitates INR-based settlements

➡ These signal India’s growing confidence to globalise the rupee while strengthening neighbourhood economic resilience.

  1. 2. Why It Matters for Nepal’s Economic Stability

Nepal’s recovery from COVID-19 was remittance-driven, but:

  • domestic demand stagnated
  • SMEs struggled to access bank credit
  • industrial growth remained sluggish
  • supply chains remained fragile

Nepal’s banking sector — dominated by large business houses — follows stringent lending norms, making working capital scarce for micro and small enterprises.

Result →

  • high unemployment
  • political disillusionment
  • import dependency worsened

By enabling INR lending, Nepalese industries gain:

  • better access to working capital
  • ease in procurement from India
  • reduced reliance on expensive USD-denominated loans

RBI’s move could thus reset the investment climate and help Nepal support job-intensive sectors.

  1. 3. Trade Interdependence: A Foundation to Build On

Bilateral trade underscores Nepal’s economic reliance on India:

Indicator

Status

India’s share in Nepal’s international trade

65%

Indian exports to Nepal

~$8 billion

Nepal’s exports to India

~$1 billion

India’s share in FDI stock in Nepal

33% (~$670 million)

India’s rank as export destination

1st (67% share)

Exports from Nepal include:

  • edible oil
  • tea & coffee
  • jute products

➡ RBI’s steps enable Nepal to deepen this supply-chain integration while boosting value addition.

  1. 4. Rupee Settlement: Hedging against Dollar Volatility

Advantages for Nepal:

  • Reduced foreign exchange pressure & CAD stress
  • Less exposure to USD fluctuations
  • Greater predictability in cross-border pricing
  • Cheaper transaction costs for industries

These reforms serve Nepal’s priority of diversifying away from hard-currency risk — particularly helpful during global financial tightening.

  1. 5. Broader Economic Multiplier Effects
  • Spurs ancillary industrialisation in Nepal
  • Enables joint ventures in manufacturing and logistics
  • Enhances global competitiveness under low-tariff U.S. import rules
  • Accelerates market-led growth in border regions

Additionally, they create the basis for:

  • strengthening Nepal’s sovereign guarantee systems
  • improving its country risk rating
  • facilitating financing of infrastructure partnerships

RBI initiatives can thus scale up the Strategic Economic Partnership framework between both countries.

  1. 6. Challenges and Coordination Needs

Despite promise, hurdles remain:

Challenge

Way Forward

Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) must adapt rapidly

Build compliance protocols aligned with RBI prudence

Financial supervision gaps

Joint regulatory coordination committees

Possible domestic resistance in Nepal

Outreach to banks, SMEs and political leadership

➡ Mutually aligned institutional reforms are critical to ensure orderly transition.

Conclusion

RBI’s initiatives reflect India’s evolving vision of neighbourhood-first economic diplomacy — enabling shared growth rather than unilateral dependence. For Nepal, it brings a lifeline to revive industrial competitiveness and financial stability. For India, it strengthens geopolitical goodwill, expands rupee acceptability, and builds regional economic resilience.

If Nepal’s institutions align swiftly and both sides maintain calibrated regulatory cooperation, this could mark a new phase of balanced economic partnership — turning proximity into prosperity and reinforcing the foundations of Himalayan harmony.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  1. 1. Evaluate India’s ‘Neighbourhood First Policy’ in strengthening economic cooperation with neighbouring countries. (GS-II)
  2. 2. Discuss the significance of currency internationalisation for India’s economic diplomacy. (GS-III)
  3. 3. How can India balance strategic concerns while deepening economic integration with Nepal? (GS-II)
  4. 4. Examine the challenges and opportunities of cross-border digital and financial connectivity in South Asia. (GS-II)

Introduction

The United Nations (UN), founded 80 years ago from the ashes of World War II, was envisioned as a guardian of peace, human dignity, and international rule of law. It was not built as a symbol of power but as a mechanism to prevent humanity from returning to war and cruelty. Today, as the world faces a vastly different geopolitical landscape — multipolarity, transnational threats, and rising nationalism — the UN’s role remains vital, though increasingly challenged. Its endurance reflects not perfection, but possibility.

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  • Evolution Through Crises

Having witnessed the UN’s journey from Cold War contestation to moments of cooperation, experiences in Rwanda, Srebrenica, East Timor and Namibia show both failures and successes.
Its operational ethos — humanitarian assistance, peacekeeping, refugee protection — continues to save millions of lives through agencies such as:

  • UNHCR (refugees)
  • WFP (food security)
  • UNICEF (child welfare)

The UN has been instrumental in creating global norms on human rights, gender justice and sustainable development — exemplified by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

  • A Changing Geopolitical Order

The world has evolved from bipolarity → unipolarity → multipolar fragmentation. What has weakened is the post-war multilateral consensus:

  • Nationalism challenges cooperation
  • Authoritarianism undermines rules-based order
  • Democracies themselves question multilateral commitments

Yet, sovereign equality, peaceful dispute resolution and collective security — the UN pillars — retain enduring relevance.

  • Security Council Reform: A Critical Need

The UNSC still reflects the power dynamics of 1945, not 2025. Its legitimacy is strained by:

  • outdated permanent membership
  • veto misuse and political paralysis

India’s claim for a permanent seat stands strong as:

  • the world’s most populous nation
  • leading democracy
  • major peacekeeping contributor
  • emerging economic power

A reformed UNSC is essential for inclusivity, representativeness, and credibility.

  • Operational and Political Constraints

The UN’s ability to act is often hindered by its own members:

  • Power blocs flout international law
  • Vetoes protect vested interests
  • Funding cuts weaken programmes (e.g., U.S. contribution delays causing budgetary strain)

The UN is ultimately a mirror of global politics, reflecting the will — or absence of will — of its member-states.

  • A Vision for a Renewed UN

For the UN to remain effective and relevant:

  1. 1. Reform UNSC to reflect contemporary geopolitical realities
  2. 2. Enhance agility through streamlined decision-making and digital tools
  3. 3. Reclaim moral leadership to counter disinformation and uphold universal values
  4. 4. Strengthen member-state commitment — political and financial

India advocates pluralism and strategic autonomy, highlighting dignity, equality and sovereignty in a multipolar world.

Conclusion

The UN remains the world’s most important platform for cooperation amid conflict and competition. Despite its flaws, abandoning it would mean surrendering the belief that humanity can govern through dialogue instead of domination. At 80, the UN is not a relic — it is a work in progress. Its future depends on making it more representative, responsive, and resilient. The UN may not take mankind to heaven, but it continues to save humanity from hell — and that is why it matters.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2022): Critically examine the role of the United Nations in maintaining international peace and security.
  • GS2 (2020): “Multilateralism is facing a crisis.” Discuss with respect to the functioning of the UN.
  • GS2 (2016): India’s claim for permanent membership in the UNSC — merits and challenges.

Introduction

International Organisations (IOs) — from the United Nations to regional bodies like SAARC — are established to facilitate cooperation among states and implement treaty-based mandates. As many of these bodies operate within sovereign jurisdictions, the question arises: Are they subject to the domestic laws and courts of the host state? IOs traditionally enjoy immunity under the principle of functional necessity, enabling them to work independently without political interference. However, when this immunity leads to denial of justice or abuse of power, the balance between protection and accountability becomes crucial — especially for a major host like India.

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  • Legal Basis for IO Immunity

The scope of immunity accorded to IOs is derived from:

  • Foundational treaties establishing the IO
  • Headquarters agreements with host countries
  • Domestic enabling legislation

The theoretical foundation — functional necessity thesis — argues that immunity is essential for IOs to discharge their global mandates effectively, free from local judicial disruptions.

But a critical dilemma persists: Should immunity shield IOs even when they violate rights or commit institutional wrongs?

  • Judicial Practices Globally

A recurring legal dispute involves employment conflicts between IOs and their staff. In many cases, IOs seek immunity from domestic court jurisdiction. International practice has evolved here:

  • International Court of Justice (1954) in the Effect of Awards Case endorsed the UN Administrative Tribunal as a valid, alternative mechanism for staff justice.
  • Traditionally, courts upheld immunity strictly, dismissing such cases.
  • Recently, courts assess human rights implications of denying jurisdiction.
  • Key evolving principle:

If immunity leaves the claimant without any remedy, it becomes a denial of justice.

Adequacy of Alternative Dispute Settlement

Courts globally have examined not just the existence but the effectiveness of internal remedies:

Case

Court Finding

Basis

Drago vs IPGRI (Italy)

Immunity rejected

No independent and impartial mechanism

Siedler vs WEU (Belgium)

Immunity lifted

Lack of fair trial guarantees

Degboe Case (France)

Immunity denied

Remedy created post-dismissal, inaccessible to petitioner

Thus, an IO cannot merely point to theoretical dispute resolution clauses.

To qualify as effective, alternative remedies must ensure:

  • Independent and impartial adjudication
  • Pre-established rules and competent panels
  • Reasonable access and due process
  • Supervisory jurisdiction of courts when needed

Vital Questions for IO Accountability

Even arbitration is insufficient unless:

  • Proper procedural mechanisms exist within IO rules
  • Arbitrators are independently appointed
  • Immunity is not invoked to block enforcement or review

If these safeguards are absent, immunity becomes a shield for impunity.

Conclusion

While the immunity of IOs is essential to maintain neutrality and operational independence, it must not transform into a free pass to evade accountability. Immunity should be conditioned on providing fair, effective remedies to aggrieved staff or stakeholders. Host states, including India, must ensure that IOs functioning on their soil uphold principles of natural justice.

As global governance evolves and IOs exert greater influence on individuals’ rights, a balanced approach is required — one that respects institutional autonomy while preventing abuse of public power. In essence, IO immunity is a protection for global cooperation, not a licence for injustice.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2023): Discuss the challenges to multilateralism in the current global order.
  • GS2 (2020): Examine the significance of international organisations in addressing transnational challenges.
  • GS2 (2018): Critically assess the need for reforms in global governance institutions such as the UN and WTO.
  • GS2 (2015): How does international law impact the sovereignty of states in the globalised era?

Introduction

The global energy landscape is undergoing a rapid transformation driven by climate imperatives and technological innovation. India and Australia — both democracies with complementary strengths — have emerged as key partners in this transition. As Australia’s Minister for Climate Change and Energy, Chris Bowen, visits New Delhi, the focus shifts from rhetoric to implementation of the India–Australia Renewable Energy Partnership (REP) launched by Prime Ministers Narendra Modi and Anthony Albanese in 2024. This partnership is not merely diplomatic; it represents a strategic response to climate vulnerability, energy security, and supply chain resilience in the Indo-Pacific.

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  1. The Indo-Pacific Climate Challenge

The Indo-Pacific region faces acute climate risks — between 1970 and 2022, it averaged 10 climate-related disasters per month, resulting in billions in economic losses. Projections suggest that up to 89 million people could be displaced by 2050, with 80% of the region’s population directly affected. For two democracies positioned in this climate-vulnerable region, cooperation in renewable energy is both a moral and strategic necessity.

India’s climate goals are ambitious — 500 GW of non-fossil capacity by 2030, of which 280 GW will come from solar. Notably, by July 2025, India has already achieved 50% of its installed capacity from non-fossil sources, five years ahead of schedule. Australia, on the other hand, has raised its climate ambition by pledging a 62–70% emission reduction below 2005 levels by 2035, moving towards its net-zero 2050 target.

 

 

  1. The Supply Chain Dilemma

The world’s renewable energy ecosystem currently depends heavily on China, which refines over 90% of rare earth elements and produces nearly 80% of global solar modules. Such concentration poses risks of strategic dependency and supply chain shocks, as seen during COVID-19 and recent export restrictions on critical minerals.

  • India’s challenge lies in its import dependency on rare earth magnets and battery materials crucial for EVs and wind turbines.
  • Australia’s challenge is its limited downstream processing and manufacturing despite abundant reserves of lithium, cobalt, and rare earths.

This asymmetry underscores the need for value chain diversification through joint investment in refining, processing, and manufacturing infrastructure — ensuring both resilience and self-reliance.

  1. The India–Australia Renewable Energy Partnership (REP): Key Pillars

The REP provides an institutional framework for collaboration across eight focus areas:

➢ Solar photovoltaic technology

➢ Green hydrogen

➢ Energy storage systems

➢ Solar supply chains

➢ Circular economy in renewables

➢ Two-way investment

➢ Capacity building and research cooperation

➢ Regional clean energy dialogues (Track 1.5)

The inclusion of a Track 1.5 Dialogue — involving policymakers, industry, and academia — adds depth to the partnership, ensuring policy synergy and technology exchange.

  1. Mutual Strengths and Synergies
  • Australia’s Edge: Resource abundance, transparent governance, and stable regulations. It can supply critical minerals and co-invest in refining and hydrogen infrastructure. The Net Zero Jobs Plan (2025) focuses on developing a skilled workforce for the green transition.
  • India’s Edge: Scale, demographic dividend, and cost-competitive manufacturing. With two-thirds of its population below 35, India’s Skill India and PLI schemes create an enabling environment for clean energy industries.

Together, Australia’s resources and India’s manpower can drive a regional clean energy hub, reducing Asia-Pacific’s dependence on a single country while promoting sustainable economic growth.

  1. Strategic Significance

The partnership reflects a convergence of interests:

  • Climate diplomacy: Joint commitment to the Paris Agreement and COP28–COP29
  • Economic security: De-risking global supply chains.
  • Geopolitical balance: Strengthening Indo-Pacific cooperation within frameworks like Quad and Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF).
  • Innovation and technology: Collaboration in hydrogen, battery technology, and circular economy principles.

Conclusion

The Australia–India clean energy partnership is a model for climate-conscious strategic cooperation. It symbolizes how democracies can collectively address the dual challenges of climate vulnerability and energy insecurity. As both nations advance toward net-zero pathways, the REP can evolve into a cornerstone of regional energy resilience and sustainable growth. Turning ambition into action — through co-investment, technology sharing, and skill development — will determine whether this partnership can truly “power up” the Indo-Pacific’s clean energy future.

Previous Year UPSC Questions (Related Themes)

GS Paper III:

  1. “Discuss India’s renewable energy transition in the context of energy security and climate commitments.” (UPSC 2022)
  2. “Examine the challenges in India’s clean energy supply chain and suggest measures for diversification.” (UPSC 2023 Expected Trend)
  3. “India’s partnership with Indo-Pacific nations in climate action is driven as much by strategic considerations as by environmental necessity.” (UPSC 2021)
  4. “Evaluate the role of international cooperation in achieving India’s target of 500 GW renewable energy capacity by 2030.” (UPSC 2020)

 “By combining Australia’s resources and India’s scale, the partnership can redefine the Indo-Pacific’s clean energy future — resilient, diversified, and democratic.”

 

Introduction

The year 2025 marks 75 years of diplomatic relations between India and China — two emerging powers whose trajectories significantly influence global order. Parallelly, the United Nations completes 80 years since its post-war founding, even as the world today grapples with volatility, geopolitical fragmentation, and a perceived decline in Western dominance. Against this backdrop, evolving India–China interactions — including the meetings between Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Xi Jinping and coordinated action through platforms like BRICS and SCO — underscore a renewed debate: Can India and China collaboratively reshape global governance for a multipolar and more equitable world?

 

Body

  • Historical Context and High-Level Diplomacy
  • Diplomatic ties founded in 1950
  • Enhanced leader-level engagements since 2014:
    • 18 Modi–Xi meetings (2014–2024) on sidelines of BRICS, SCO, G-20 summits
    • Significant exchanges in Ahmedabad (2014) & Xi’an (2015)
  • After COVID-19 disruptions, resumed meetings in Johannesburg (2023) & Kazan (2024) focusing on stabilisation and improved coordination

These engagements convey a policy shift from tension-management to pragmatic cooperation.

  • Global Governance at an Inflection Point

The 80th anniversary of the UN highlights both achievements and inadequacies.
Current global challenges:

  • Economic slowdown, trade protectionism
  • Climate change and energy insecurity
  • Terrorism and extremism
  • Unilateralism and hegemonic pursuits

This fuels calls for reforms that:

✔ democratise the international order

✔ empower developing countries

✔ strengthen multilateral rules

India and China together represent 2.8 billion people and much of the Global South — making coordination between them globally consequential.

  • Emerging Asian Leadership: Partners, Not Rivals

As highlighted by Chinese perspectives, western decline coupled with the rise of Asia and Eurasia strengthens prospects for joint leadership.

China emphasises four principles for healthy bilateral ties:

  1. Strategic communication and mutual trust
  2. Greater trade and economic cooperation
  3. Accommodation of concerns & peaceful coexistence
  4. Multilateral coordination to protect shared interests

India’s positive signalling:

  • Peace along borders improving
  • Resumption of direct flights
  • A “positive trajectory” in relations

Despite past tensions, cooperative space is expanding.

  • China’s Global Governance Initiative (GGI): Implications

Announced at 2025 SCO Tianjin Summit, the GGI lays out five principles:

Principle

Objective for Global Governance

Sovereign equality

Respect diversity of political choices; participation as equals

International rule of law

Uniform application of UN Charter norms

Multilateralism

Strengthen UN-led order, reject unilateralism

People-centric development

Common prosperity, human well-being focus

Practical results

Solutions to global challenges; responsibility of developed nations

These align with several Indian positions on:

  • Sovereign autonomy
  • Inclusive multilateral institutions
  • Reform of global institutions

India similarly advocates a reformed, representative, multipolar world order — including UNSC reform to reflect current realities.

Challenges & Realism

While convergence exists, constraints persist:

  • Border disputes and resultant trust deficit
  • Competition in strategic spheres (Indian Ocean, neighbourhood)
  • Divergence in political systems and global alignments
  • China’s support for Pakistan on strategic issues
  • Absence of progress on UNSC reform where India seeks a permanent seat

Thus, India’s approach remains cooperative but cautious, guided by strategic autonomy.

Conclusion

India and China, as major Asian powers and key Global South stakeholders, have the capacity to influence 21st-century global governance significantly. Constructive engagement through BRICS, SCO and the UN can strengthen multipolarity, multilateral rule-of-law, and equitable development. Yet durable cooperation requires addressing bilateral frictions, ensuring border tranquillity, and enabling trust-building mechanisms.

The future of global governance is, in large measure, tied to how India and China balance competition and cooperation. If the two can manage differences and jointly pursue reform-oriented multilateralism, they can shape a global order that is fairer, more democratic, and responsive to the aspirations of developing nations.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2023): “India’s vision of multipolarity must reconcile with realities of great-power competition.” Discuss with reference to India-China relations.
  • GS2 (2020): Can India and China jointly lead a reformed multilateral world order? Critically examine.
  • GS2 (2017): Examine the role of BRICS in promoting reform of global governance institutions.

 Introduction

Israel’s recent military successes — the devastation of Gaza, degradation of Hezbollah, and dismantling of Iran’s nuclear capacity (with U.S. support) — have temporarily reinforced its image as the military hegemon of West Asia. However, as Professor Mohammed Ayoob argues, this dominance is structurally fragile. Despite tactical victories, Israel’s long-term hegemony is undermined by demographic imbalances, moral isolation, diplomatic backlash, and dependence on the United States, all of which reveal the limits of its power in a region defined by historical grievances and shifting alliances.

Body

  1. Demographic Contradictions and the Binational Dilemma
  • Israel’s population within its 1967 borders is around 9 million, including 2 million Palestinian citizens (20%).
  • When the West Bank and Gaza’s 6 million Palestinians are included, “Greater Israel” would have near demographic parity between Jews and Palestinians.
  • This creates a governance paradox:
    • If Israel grants equal rights to Palestinians, it ceases to be an exclusive Jewish state.
    • If it denies them equality, it becomes an apartheid state, inviting international condemnation similar to South Africa’s pre-1990 isolation.
  • Thus, demography erodes the ideological foundation of Zionist exclusivity, undermining Israel’s moral legitimacy and sustainability as a hegemonic power.
  1. Diplomatic Backlash and Regional Alienation
  • Israel’s actions in Gaza, where over 67,000 Palestinians (including women and children) have been killed (UNHRC data, 2025), have alienated even those Arab regimes that once saw Tel Aviv as a counterweight to Iran.
  • The Abraham Accords (2020–21) with UAE, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan are under strain. Gulf monarchies now perceive Israel as an unpredictable, militarised actor jeopardising regional stability.
  • The September 2025 Israeli airstrike on Doha, violating prior U.S. assurances, shattered trust among Gulf leaders and derailed prospects of Saudi–Israeli normalisation.
  • This reversal has left Israel diplomatically isolated in its neighbourhood — an unsustainable position for a state surrounded by hostile or ambivalent regimes.
  1. Erosion of U.S. Support and Global Opinion
  • American public opinion is turning decisively against Israel:
    • Pew Research (2025): 60% of Americans hold negative views of Israel’s government.
    • Washington Post poll: 61% of American Jews believe Israel has committed war crimes; 40% label it as genocide.
  • Human rights organisations and genocide scholars increasingly categorise Israel’s Gaza actions as violations of international law.
  • Even Trump’s ceasefire plan (2025) forced Israel to halt operations and withdraw — a sign that U.S. tolerance for Tel Aviv’s unilateralism is waning.
  • As U.S. strategic interests (energy, trade, and stability) realign in the region, Israel’s utility as an ally diminishes, exposing its dependence on external power for survival.
  1. Structural and Moral Fragility
  • Israel’s military power rests on external patronage and short-term deterrence, not regional legitimacy.
  • Internally, political polarisation and settler extremism weaken social cohesion.
  • Externally, moral outrage over Gaza has made Israel a pariah in global public opinion, with several European states now recognising Palestine.
  • As international legitimacy erodes, sustaining hegemony without consent becomes untenable — a classic case of what scholars term “hard power without moral authority.”

Conclusion

Israel’s regional dominance is tactically secure but strategically unsustainable. Demography threatens its identity, diplomacy isolates it from neighbours, and moral censure undermines its global legitimacy. Its overreliance on U.S. support — at a time when Washington’s priorities are shifting — exposes the hollowness of its hegemony. Unless Israel reconciles its security imperatives with justice, equality, and genuine regional integration, it risks becoming, in Ayoob’s words, “a colossus with feet of clay.”

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II:
  • India and its neighbourhood relations.
  • Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests.
  • Regional and global groupings and their impact on international relations.
  • International institutions and peace efforts (UN, UNHRC, ICJ).

Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • “Critically examine the impact of Abraham Accords on India’s West Asia policy.” (GS-II, 2021)
  • “The decline of moral legitimacy is as potent as the loss of military capability in international politics.” (Essay, 2020)
  • “Discuss the changing power dynamics in West Asia and their implications for India’s foreign policy.” (GS-II, 2019)

Introduction

India and the United Kingdom have entered a renewed phase of economic and strategic partnership, marked most notably by the signing of the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) in July 2025. The recent visit of British Prime Minister Keir Starmer to Mumbai, and his meeting with Prime Minister Narendra Modi, signals a clear intent to scale up the bilateral relationship amidst shifting global supply chains, technological competition, and geopolitical uncertainty. While awaiting formal ratification, CETA is already viewed as a pivotal foundation for deepening trade, investments, mobility, and collaboration in emerging sectors. The evolving partnership is expected to shape a resilient and forward-looking India–U.K. relationship aligned with global economic transformation.

Body

CETA as a Turning Point in Bilateral Relations

  • Trade boost: The agreement is projected to double bilateral trade by 2030, driven by reduced tariffs and improved market access.
  • Gains for India: Enhanced export competitiveness for textiles, agricultural products, pharmaceuticals, and services.
  • Gains for U.K.: Lower duties on Scotch whisky, automobiles and high-value exports strengthen the U.K.’s trade footprint in India.
  • Strategic alignment: CETA goes beyond trade — it blends economic cooperation with partnership in technology, security, and innovation.

This aligns with India’s broader outreach through its Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) with EFTA, which links market access with $100 billion investment commitments, and its ongoing negotiations with the European Union, India’s second-largest goods trading partner.

Investment, Mobility & Business Ecosystem Improvements

The U.K. remains India’s 6th largest foreign investor, contributing nearly 5% of total FDI.

Key enablers under negotiation and implementation include:

Instrument

Expected Impact

Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)

Legal certainty for investors; stronger manufacturing & services inflows

Tariff elimination on multiple products

Boost for cross-border business competitiveness

Regulatory cooperation

Promotes seamless standards, smoother value chains

Double Contributions Convention (DCC)

Avoids double social security payments; boosts skilled professional mobility

Indian professionals in IT, finance, health, and engineering — already making transformative contributions — will find improved access to opportunities, enabling India to leverage its demographic and services advantage.

Technology, Security & Climate: Expanding the Agenda Beyond Trade

The Vision 2035 India–U.K. Road Map under review is the master plan for defence, technology, climate action, education, and mobility.

Major pillars include:

  1. Defence Industrial Road Map (2025–30)
    • Joint research, development, and co-production of advanced defence platforms
    • Strengthens self-reliance and Indo-Pacific security alignment
  2. Technology Security Initiative (TSI) — 2024
    • Collaboration in AI, quantum tech, semiconductors, critical minerals, advanced materials
    • Recognizes the indivisibility of economic and national security in emerging technologies
  3. Climate & Sustainability Cooperation
    • Green finance, renewable energy systems, electric mobility, and energy transition technologies
    • Mutual support towards net-zero commitments

Thus, the partnership is moving from transactional trade to transformational co-creation.

Strategic Timing Amid Global Economic Fragmentation

The visit comes as:

  • Global trade increasingly reorients into regional blocs
  • Resilience and security are prioritized over cost-centric global supply chains
  • Competition for advanced technologies, capital, and skilled talent intensifies

Why the partnership matters today:

  • For Britain → India offers a vast market, digital innovation, and Indo-Pacific alignment
  • For India → U.K. brings cutting-edge technology, high-end investment, and support for global ambitions

Indian industry can rapidly scale synergies in:

  • Renewables and Green Hydrogen
  • Digital finance and fintech
  • Electric mobility and aerospace
  • Higher education and knowledge economy sectors

For policymakers, harmonizing regulations, simplifying procedures, and ensuring inclusivity of benefits becomes crucial.

Conclusion

Prime Ministers Narendra Modi and Keir Starmer are poised to elevate India–U.K. relations into a next-generation partnership — one that combines:

  • Trade liberalization with co-investment in sustainability,
  • Reduced tariffs with seamless talent mobility,
  • Defence procurement with co-development of critical technologies.

By operationalizing CETA effectively and aligning strategic road maps, both countries can move from being mutual economic partners to becoming co-architects of a resilient, innovation-driven, and rules-based global economic order. The success of this partnership will not only shape bilateral prosperity but also offer a model for strategic cooperation in an era of geopolitical flux.

Introduction

The October 7, 2023 Hamas attacks on Israel dramatically reshaped the geopolitical landscape of West Asia. Until then, the region was moving towards a U.S.-led security realignment — Arab-Israel rapprochement through the 2020 Abraham Accords, growing cooperation among Israel–Gulf nations, and U.S. initiatives like I2U2 and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC). The Palestine question had taken a back seat. But the war that followed the Hamas assault has brought Palestine back to the centre of regional politics, testing Israel’s strategic vision and exposing fault lines in its own security doctrine.

Body

Shift in Geopolitics Post-October 2023

  • The Hamas attack shattered the assumption of Israeli regional security superiority.
  • The violence underscored that ignoring Palestinian aspirations would perpetuate instability in West Asia.
  • Israel’s broader ambitions went beyond defeating Hamas — it sought to weaken Iran, dominate regional security, and consolidate normalization with Arab states.

Israel’s War Objectives

  1. Eliminate Hamas militarily and administratively
  2. Secure release of 251 hostages
  3. Reinforce Israeli dominance in West Asia by:
    • Curbing Iran’s regional proxies (Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, Houthis)
    • Maintaining U.S. backing for a “new Middle East”
    • Keeping the Palestinian statehood claim marginal

Israel gained:

  • Control over large areas of Gaza
  • Major degradation of Hamas infrastructure
  • Operational freedom across multiple theatres

However, these are tactical, not strategic, gains.

The Strategic Miscalculations

  1. Hamas remains embedded in Palestinian nationalism
    • Shifted from governance to insurgency — harder to defeat
    • Israel’s massive civilian toll (~67,000 killed) has boosted global sympathy for Palestine
    • Several countries have since recognized Palestinian statehood formally
  2. Regionwide escalation turned into a multi-front confrontation
    • Strikes in Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Iran, and even Qatar
    • Qatar attack particularly damaged U.S. trust and security arrangements
  3. Iran’s ‘Axis of Resistance’ weakened but not dismantled
    • Hezbollah survives as a political-military powerhouse in Lebanon
    • Iran retaliated with long-range missiles, signaling deterrence
  4. Collapse of diplomatic momentum
    • Saudi Arabia no longer sees normalization as a strategic gain
    • IMEEC and I2U2 have stalled due to Arab distrust
    • S. now fears erosion of its regional credibility
  5. Arab states rebalancing security partnerships
    • Saudi–Pakistan mutual defence pact
    • Qatar receives NATO-style U.S. guarantee
      → Israel is no longer seen as the stabilizer Washington envisioned

Israel’s Dilemma

  • No clear end-state: occupation vs withdrawal
  • International isolation rising; U.S. pressure increasing
  • Israel cannot return to pre-2023 order without concessions on Palestinian statehood
  • Domestic political elite remain opposed to compromise

Thus, Israel is locked in a war without a strategic exit — a “strategic labyrinth”.

Conclusion

Israel’s attempt to reshape West Asia through force has reversed its own diplomatic advances. Tactical victories in Gaza and against Iranian proxies have not created long-term security. Instead, the Palestine cause has resurfaced at the centre of global and regional politics, while Arab normalization processes have halted. A sustainable regional order now requires addressing Palestinian political rights, not suppressing them militarily. Israel’s strategic future ultimately hinges on recognizing this geopolitical reality.

Link to UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper II: International Relations
    – India and West Asia relations
    – Effect of policies of developed nations on India’s interests
    – Regional security architecture

PYQs for Practice

  1. 2023 – “India’s Act West Policy and evolving dynamics in West Asia — comment.”
  2. 2020 – “Discuss the role of U.S. policies in shaping West Asian geopolitics.”
  3. 2018 – “Examine challenges to the two-state solution in the Israel-Palestine conflict.”
  4. 2015 – “Instability in West Asia is a challenge to India’s strategic interests—discuss.”

Introduction

Public health regulation in India has historically grappled with misleading medical advertising and self-medication. To address such harmful commercial practices, the Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954 (DMRA) prohibits advertisements claiming to cure 54 serious ailments, including diabetes and cancers. However, in the digital era, Big Tech platforms (search engines, social media, e-commerce) have become dominant advertising channels — often prioritising profit over compliance with Indian law. Their persistent promotion of unverified therapeutic products, especially Ayurvedic and homeopathic medicines, raises serious ethical and legal concerns.

This issue reflects a broader imbalance in global technology governance: multinational digital corporations obey stringent U.S. laws, but operate with an apparent disregard for Indian sovereignty and citizen safety.

Body

Digital Advertising: A Regulatory Grey Zone

While print and broadcast media traditionally followed tight compliance norms, the shift to Internet-based advertising has:

  • fragmented government oversight
  • empowered platforms headquartered abroad
  • increased reach of harmful ads targeting vulnerable populations

Search terms like “ayurveda + blood pressure tablets” or “homeopathy + diabetes cure” routinely display paid ads for prohibited claims. Some platforms even host videos by self-styled “gurus” promoting cow-urine products for cancer — all in direct violation of DMRA.

Double standards

  • In India → ads allowed openly
  • In the U.S. → pre-screening and strict compliance with FDA/FTC norms

Violations in America invite swift criminal prosecution — but in India, enforcement remains weak.

Why Big Tech Disrespects Indian Law

Reason

Explanation

1. Historical corporate impunity

Echo of cases like Union Carbide → Indian lives seen as less valuable

2. Weak enforcement and judicial delays

Example: PNDT law violations → 9 years of PIL with no criminal prosecution

3. Legal loopholes in accountability

Parent companies outside India; subsidiaries claim lack of control

4. Abuse of “intermediary status”

Platforms falsely present themselves as neutral content hosts, not publishers

However, advertisements are not user-generated — platforms actively:

  • solicit ads
  • negotiate contracts
  • profit from illegal marketing → They are publishers, not intermediaries.

➡ The illusion of legal immunity fuels their non-compliance.

Public Health Risk in India

India has:

  • high rates of self-medication
  • cultural acceptance of traditional healing
  • rising burden of non-communicable diseases

Misleading drug claims can cause:

  • delayed diagnosis
  • abandonment of qualified treatment
  • worsening disease burden
  • financial exploitation of vulnerable users

Thus, the failure to regulate Big Tech advertising is not a minor legal lapse — it is a public health crisis.

Need for Systemic Reform

Policy and Regulatory Actions

  1. 1. Criminal prosecution
  • File cases against responsible managerial personnel under DMRA & PNDT
  • Extradition pressure if foreign officials resist court summons
  1. 2. Indian accountability mandates
  • Senior policy leads must be Indian citizens based in India
  • Similar to measures used by U.S. agencies against TikTok
  1. 3. Conditional immunity
  • Revoke intermediary protection if Big Tech refuses DMRA compliance
  • Liability must extend to advertising and monetization decisions
  1. 4. Stronger digital surveillance and penalties
  • AI flagging of objectionable ads
  • Heavier fines for every repeated violation
  • Public disclosure boards for violators
  1. 5. Public health literacy
  • Campaigns cautioning citizens about “miracle cures”
  • Mandatory warnings on traditional products lacking approval

Conclusion

As India aspires toward universal healthcare and drug safety, uncontrolled digital advertising threatens constitutional guarantees of public health (Article 21) and consumer protection. Big Tech’s selective compliance — rigorous in U.S. territory yet lax in India — reflects deeper inequalities in global technology power.

India must assert its sovereignty by ensuring:

  • legal accountability
  • corporate liability
  • protection of public health over private profit

Ultimately, without the credible fear of punitive action, regulatory laws risk becoming toothless, and citizens continue to bear the cost of digital negligence.

PYQs for Practice

  1. 1. “Regulation of digital platforms is essential to safeguard sovereignty and citizen rights.” Analyse. (GS-II, Polity & Governance)
  2. 2. Public health policies must keep pace with technological change. Discuss in light of online medical misinformation. (GS-II, 2023)
  3. 3. Examine whether self-regulation by Big Tech is adequate for democratic accountability. (GS-II)
  4. 4. “Consumer protection in India needs stronger enforcement rather than new laws.” Comment. (GS-III)

Introduction

The tragic death of 25 children due to contaminated cough syrup has shaken India’s collective conscience. These avoidable fatalities — reportedly linked to a paediatrician receiving a commission of merely ₹2.54 per bottle — raise grave concerns about the safety of medicines administered to children. This incident occurred despite the Union Health Ministry’s April 2025 ban on certain cough syrup formulations for children below four years due to contamination risks. The episode exposes systemic failures in India’s drug regulation, and the urgent need to safeguard the health rights guaranteed to children under Article 39(f) of the Constitution and UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which India has ratified.

Children constitute 39% of India’s population — yet their vulnerability in the health-care system remains deeply under-addressed.

Body

  1. 1. Regulatory Fragmentation and Institutional Weaknesses

Drug regulation in India is split between:

Authority

Role

Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO)

Licensing of large manufacturers, export approvals

State drug regulators

Oversee manufacture, sale and distribution by SMEs

This dual structure:

  • creates compliance gaps
  • weakens monitoring of small and rural pharmaceutical supply chains
  • dilutes accountability when contamination occurs

Regulation often reacts after harm has occurred — rather than proactively preventing violations.

  1. 2. The “Therapeutic Orphan” Problem

Dr. Harry Shirkey termed children “therapeutic orphans” because:

  • They are dependent on adults for medication decisions
  • Pharmacodynamics differ significantly from adults
  • Clinical trials seldom include children due to ethical concerns

Thus:

  • Dosages are extrapolated from adult guidelines
  • Risk of overdose, toxicity and drug interactions is high
  • Many drugs are prescribed off-label

➡ There is insufficient paediatric-specific research, formulation, and regulation in India.

  1. 3. International Best Practices vs India’s Gaps

Strong global legal frameworks exist:

  • EU: Paediatric Use Marketing Authorisation (PUMA)
  • USA: Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act (BPCA) — incentives for trials and approvals

India lacks:

  • a dedicated Paediatric Medicines Act
  • incentives for paediatric-specific clinical research
  • regulatory protocols tailor-made for children

➡ India needs exclusive pharmacovigilance norms for children to ensure safe dosage, formulation, and administration.

  1. 4. Essential Medicines for Children: A Neglected Priority

The WHO Essential Medicines List for Children (EMLc) helps countries prioritise safe paediatric drugs.

But:

  • India revises EML for adults more frequently than EMLc
  • Delays in updates result in gaps in availability and affordability of vital children’s medicines

➡ Timely revision of EMLc must become a public-health priority.

  1. 5. Over-the-Counter (OTC) Culture: A Silent Risk

Common practices include:

  • self-medication for cough, cold, fever
  • purchasing without prescription
  • inadequate awareness among caregivers

Urban areas face misuse; rural areas face ignorance.

Required actions:

  • mandatory pharmacist counselling
  • clearer labels and dosage instructions
  • monitoring side-effects
  • zero-tolerance for substandard substitutes in public facilities

Teenagers require special attention due to substance misuse risks.

  1. 6. Export Responsibility and Global Accountability

WHO has issued warnings on contaminated syrups manufactured in India, linked to child deaths in:

  • The Gambia
  • Uzbekistan
  • Indonesia
  • Cameroon

As the “pharmacy of the Global South”, India must:

  • uphold global quality assurance
  • avoid reputational damage in health diplomacy

➡ Export success should not compromise domestic child safety.

  1. 7. India Needs India-Specific Paediatric Data

Indian children differ physiologically due to:

  • genetic diversity
  • nutritional status
  • environmental exposure

Extrapolating adult or foreign drug data → unsafe and unethical Hence, Indian clinical research on paediatric safety is urgent.

Conclusion

Every child’s life is invaluable. The use of untested or contaminated medicines in children amounts to a violation of their fundamental right to life and health (Article 21). India must urgently:

  • establish a robust paediatric drug safety infrastructure
  • frame dedicated paediatric pharmaceutical regulations
  • strengthen surveillance at every distribution point
  • invest in Indian paediatric clinical research
  • prioritize awareness among parents and pharmacists

Protecting children’s health is a fiduciary duty of the State — failure is not an option. Only when India treats children’s safety as sacrosanct can constitutional promises truly translate into justice and dignity for every child.

PYQs for Practice (GS-II/GS-III)

  1. 1. “Regulation of pharmaceuticals is central to public health governance in India.” Comment with reference to paediatric drug safety. (GS-II)
  2. 2. Examine how health-care inequalities affect children’s right to life and development in India. (GS-II)
  3. 3. Discuss the role of pharmacovigilance in ensuring drug quality and preventing fatalities in India. (GS-III)
  4. 4. What reforms are needed to strengthen India’s drug regulatory ecosystem to meet global standards? (GS-III)

Introduction

India today confronts a severe mental health crisis that transcends geography, class, age and gender — from Kota’s coaching centres to urban boardrooms and rural farms. Recent tragedies, including the suicide of a young family in Uttar Pradesh and recurring student deaths in Rajasthan, illustrate widespread distress. With 1,71,418 suicides reported in 2023 (NCRB), and suicide remaining the leading cause of death among youth aged 15–29, India faces both a public health emergency and a social justice challenge. The problem is not only medical — it is institutional, economic, and deeply human.

Body

  • India’s Alarming Data
  • 8% of suicide victims are men — pointing to economic stress and social expectations.
  • Family problems (31.9%) and illness (19%) are major causes.
  • Farmers:
    • 10,786 suicides in 2023 (~6.3% of total), mostly in Maharashtra & Karnataka
    • 1 lakh farmer suicides since 2014
  • Urban suicide rates > rural — attributable to isolation, competition, job insecurity.
  • 230 million Indians live with mental disorders.
  • Treatment gap: 70%–92% receive no formal care.
  • WHO suicide rate estimate: 3 per 1,00,000 — significantly higher than official figures.

➡The crisis cuts across households — often invisible, often ignored.

  • Structural Weakness in India’s Mental Health System

Indicator

India

WHO Minimum

Ideal

Psychiatrists per 1 lakh population

0.75

1.7

3+

Other professional shortages:

  • Psychologists, psychiatric nurses & social workers are insufficient nationwide.
  • School and college counselling is tokenistic: often 1 part-time teacher for thousands.

Despite progressive policy frameworks:

  • Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 guarantees treatment & decriminalises suicide.
  • National Suicide Prevention Strategy, 2022 targets a 10% reduction.

Yet suicides continue rising — reflecting implementation gaps.

  • Agrarian & Gender Dimensions
  • Women face silent distress from:
    • Domestic violence
    • Social isolation
    • Unpaid care burdens
  • Farmer suicides driven by:
    • Indebtedness
    • Crop failure
    • Market shocks
    • Lack of institutional support

➡ Mental health intersects with livelihoods, patriarchy and structural social inequalities.

  • Technology: A Symptom of Loneliness

Growing reliance on AI chatbots for emotional support stems from:

  • Fear of stigma
  • Lack of accessible counselling
  • Trust deficit with human systems

But AI tools:

  • do not ensure privacy
  • lack crisis intervention capability
  • may provide dangerous or inaccurate advice

➡ Technology should supplement — not substitute — human care.

Way Forward: Making Mental Health a National Priority

  1. 1. Build Mental Health Workforce Capacity
  • Increase to 3–5 mental health professionals per 1 lakh population within 5 years.
  • Scholarships, rural-service incentives, and expanded psychiatry programs.
  1. 2. Institutionalise Counselling as Public Infrastructure
  • Full-time counsellors in every:
    • School & college
    • District hospital
    • Agricultural extension unit
  • Funding must be centrally provisioned — not NGO-dependent.
  1. 3. Targeted Support for High-Risk Groups
  • Farmers: combine counselling with debt relief and credit support.
  • Homemakers: create community therapy networks via SHGs.
  • Students: mandatory continuous mental health services in coaching hubs and hostels.
  1. 4. Strengthen Digital Mental Health Regulations
  • Mandatory privacy disclosures, crisis redirection, and human backup
  • Ethical frameworks for online counselling platforms
  1. 5. Public Awareness & Stigma Reduction
  • Normalise conversations on distress
  • Promote recovery stories
  • Encourage early help-seeking

Each intervention should recognise mental health as both a health right and a social responsibility.

Conclusion

India cannot aspire to being a humane, progressive nation while ignoring the silent suffering of millions. The cost of inaction is immense: ₹1.1 lakh crore annual loss to workplaces, and potentially $1 trillion GDP loss by 2030 from untreated mental illness. But beyond economics, this is about dignity, survival, and preventing preventable deaths.

Every suicide is a tragedy — a silenced voice, a broken family, a future lost. India’s response must be rooted in empathy: ensuring that every person hears and believes the simple truth — “You matter.”

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2021): Discuss the challenges of mental health management in India. Suggest institutional reforms.
  • GS2 (2020): Critically evaluate the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 in promoting accessibility and rights-based mental health care.
  • GS3 (2016): Farmer suicides in India — causes and policy responses.
  • GS1 (Social Issues): How does urbanisation impact psychological well-being in India?

Introduction

India is home to one of the world’s largest mental health burdens, with 13.7% lifetime prevalence of mental disorders. Despite progressive legal frameworks such as the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 and the Supreme Court’s acknowledgment of mental health as a fundamental right under Article 21, implementation remains fragmented. With mental ill-health costing India over $1 trillion in economic losses by 2030, the urgency for a robust, coordinated mental health response has never been greater. A unified policy approach — integrating health, education, social justice, labour and digital governance — is critical to closing treatment gaps and ensuring inclusive wellbeing.

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Existing Initiatives: Progress with Serious Gaps

India has built several institutional mechanisms:

Initiative

Achievements

Mental Healthcare Act, 2017

Decriminalises suicide; guarantees access, dignity, insurance coverage

District Mental Health Programme (DMHP)

Coverage in 767 districts, decentralised service delivery

Tele MANAS helpline

20 lakh+ tele-counselling sessions, expanding digital access

Manodarpan

Reached 11 crore students with school-based psychosocial support

However, treatment gaps are still staggering:

  • 70%–92% across mental health disorders
  • 85% in common conditions such as depression and anxiety

This reflects the disconnect between policies and ground realities.

  • Workforce and Infrastructure Shortages

India heavily lags global standards:

Mental Health Professionals per 100,000 population

India

WHO Minimum

Best Practice (UK/Canada/Australia)

Psychiatrists

0.75

1.7

3+

Psychologists

0.12

–

High density & mid-level providers

Rural India — 70% of the population — faces acute scarcity, while existing services remain urban-centric and overloaded.

Psychotropic medicine shortages, limited rehabilitation support (≤15% of need), and fragmented referral pathways lead to treatment dropout and chronic disability.

Underfunding and Missing Data

Mental health receives:

  • Only 1.05% of total health spending (vs 8–10% in U.K., Canada, Australia)

Additionally:

  • Lack of real-time mental health surveillance
  • Fragmented data across institutions ➡ Policy decisions are seldom evidence-based.

Stigma and Structural Barriers

  • Over 50% Indians believe mental illness reflects personal weakness
  • Care-seeking is delayed due to fear and shame
  • Low insurance coverage (<15%) and informal sector vulnerabilities worsen access

The dominance of specialist-only care models resists reforms like mid-level providers, which deliver ~50% counselling in high-income countries.

Policy Fragmentation

Multiple ministries have parallel mandates:

  • Health: clinical services and suicide prevention
  • Education: youth mental health
  • Social Justice & Labour: protection of disadvantaged groups

But weak inter-ministerial coordination = duplication, inefficiency, and poor accountability.

Way Forward: Building a Unified Mental Health Response

  1. 1. Increase mental health expenditure Raise from 05% → at least 5% of total health spending → Expand infrastructure, drugs, human resources
  2. 2. Integrate mental health into primary care & insurance
  • Universal health coverage must include counselling and psychiatric care
  • Strengthen Health and Wellness Centres for localised support
  1. 3. Scale mid-level mental health workforce
  • Train counsellors, nurses, social workers — deploy to rural/underserved regions
  1. 4. Diagnostic and policy modernisation
  • Adopt ICD-11, including:
    • Complex PTSD
    • Prolonged grief disorder
    • Gaming disorder
  1. 5. Robust monitoring & accountability
  • Cascade-based tracking of treatment pathways
  • Linked budgeting and outcome audits
  1. 6. Nationwide stigma reduction campaigns
  • School and workplace mental health literacy
  • Target >60% coverage by 2027

7.Strengthen inter-sectoral governance

  • A permanent cross-ministerial task force with funding authority
  • Alignment of agriculture, education, labour and gender welfare systems with mental health goals

These steps ensure responsiveness not only to clinical needs but also to social determinants of mental health.

Conclusion

India’s mental health challenge is vast — but solvable. A unified, adequately funded, community-centric system can safeguard rights, expand access, and reduce preventable deaths. With mental illnesses affecting 200 million Indians and suicides rising despite multiple programmes, piecemeal strategies are insufficient. Ensuring mental health care is accessible to every citizen is not just a constitutional obligation — it is a moral commitment to protect the dignity and future of the nation.

Effective mental health governance will not merely save lives — it will strengthen India’s social fabric, productivity and democratic values.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2021): Mental health care in India suffers from both low prioritisation and social stigma. Discuss reforms needed.
  • GS2 (2019): Universal health coverage must include mental health — analyse with suitable measures.
  • GS3 (2022): Examine the socioeconomic factors driving mental distress among youth in India.

Introduction

A robust judiciary is indispensable to a constitutional democracy like India. Yet, recent discourse by certain policymakers portrays the judiciary as a deterrent to economic progress and the realisation of the “Viksit Bharat” vision. Such reductionist narratives, amplified by political convenience, frame courts as obstructionist hurdles rather than critical guardians of rule of law and rights. A nuanced assessment is essential — one that acknowledges institutional limitations while rejecting scapegoating that undermines democratic accountability.

Body

Criticism Based on Misplaced Assumptions

Prominent voices, including members of the Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council, argue that the judicial system is the “single biggest hurdle” to development. They cite delays, vacations, and enforcement inefficiencies. However, these arguments often:

  • lack evidence-based grounding,
  • ignore governmental responsibility in justice administration,
  • oversimplify complex structural governance issues.

Negative stereotypes about judges’ working hours or vacations obscure the demanding nature of judicial work — extensive reading, judgment writing, and precedent analysis — often beyond visible court times.

Judicial Overload Reflects Governance Failures

The judiciary is overburdened by systemic gaps for which other institutions are responsible:

  • Vacancies persist due to executive delays in appointments.
  • Infrastructure—particularly in lower courts—remains outdated.
  • Government litigation accounts for nearly 50% of pending cases (as the largest litigator in India).

Public officials challenge judicial delays but rarely question:

  • Frivolous government appeals,
  • Non-compliance with contractual obligations,
  • Bureaucratic disregard for citizen rights that pushes ordinary individuals into unnecessary litigation.

Thus, judicial congestion reflects shortcomings in administrative efficiency and legislative clarity.

Flaws in Law-making Exacerbate Litigation

Incorrectly drafted laws worsen backlog and interpretation disputes:

  • The Commercial Courts Act, 2015 (Section 12A) — cited as an example of poor mediation enforcement — was legislated by Parliament, not conceptualised by courts.
  • Frequent reliance on vague legal vocabulary like “irrespective” instead of well-understood terms such as “notwithstanding” adds confusion rather than simplification.
  • Recent criminal law reforms largely rebrand colonial-era codes with minimal substantive overhaul, generating ambiguity for years to come.

Mistargeted laws create compliance uncertainty, bureaucratic discretion, and repetitive litigation — problems courts are then unfairly blamed for.

Reality of Judicial Work and Breaks

  • Supreme Court and High Courts hear 50–100 matters per day.
  • Vacation benches continue work even during recess.
  • Breaks help clear reserved judgments and prevent decision fatigue.

Denying such structure would compromise judicial quality and constitutional safeguards.

Consequences of Blame-Shifting

Branding courts as adversaries of development risks:

  • weakening a core democratic check on executive power,
  • shrinking space for constitutionalism,
  • encouraging authoritarian tendencies in governance.

The judiciary’s foremost mandate is justice, not speed alone. Economic efficiency cannot override protection of rights, liberties, and due process.

Conclusion

India indeed requires judicial reforms — more judges per capita, modern courts, policy-based litigation controls, better legal drafting, and strengthened lower judiciary infrastructure. But blaming the judiciary as the “biggest hurdle” to India’s growth misidentifies the root causes and masks failures of executive governance and legislative design. For India to become a truly developed nation, a strong, independent, and respected judiciary is fundamental — not expendable. Constructive reform must replace casual criticism if constitutional democracy is to remain both resilient and just.

Link to UPSC Mains Syllabus

  • GS Paper II:
    – Separation of powers
    – Structure and functioning of the judiciary
    – Government policies and reforms
    – Issues relating to governance, transparency, and accountability

Relevant PYQs

  1. 2021 — “Judicial legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers.” Critically examine.
  2. 2019 — “The judiciary must not merely act independently but also appear to be independent.” Discuss.
  3. 2018 — “Indian judiciary has been playing a proactive role. Is judicial activism a necessary evil?”
  4. 2016 — “Delay in the delivery of justice is the biggest hurdle in securing rights of citizens.” Analyse.

Introduction

India stands at a critical juncture where economic potential, demographic advantage, and political aspirations converge. With nearly 65% of the population under 35, India possesses the world’s largest young workforce at a time when many developed societies are aging. However, rapid technological shifts, ecological stress and volatile global markets raise a pressing question — Can India create meaningful economic and democratic opportunities for its youth? Today, development remains concentrated in metropolitan centres while most youth continue to reside in districts with constrained opportunities. To fully harness the demographic dividend, India must shift focus from top-down delivery to empowering local governance. Reclaiming districts as democratic commons — inclusive spaces where youth engage as producers, innovators, and citizens — is central to building a more equitable and resilient future.

Body

  • Unequal Geography of Growth

Despite being home to the vast majority of India’s population, districts have been peripheral in economic transformation:

  • 85% of Indians live in their district of birth
  • 60% of GDP emerges from cities occupying only 3% of land
  • Corporate profits have risen, but wages have stagnated, constraining domestic demand — the engine of India’s growth

This spatial inequality leads to under-utilisation of talent, widening consumption gaps, and limiting local entrepreneurship. India cannot rely only on elite consumption or export-led growth — it must ensure broad-based production, innovation, and income generation across districts.

  • Centralisation: A Structural Governance Challenge

India’s governance evolution has prioritised speed, efficiency and technology. While beneficial, this has deepened centralisation:

Existing Model

Consequences

Technocratic, top-down delivery

Citizens reduced to beneficiaries rather than participants

Welfare-dominated politics

Cash transfers replacing sustainable job creation

Diminishing role of elected representatives at local levels

Weak articulation of local aspirations

Youth disengagement

Growing political fatigue and mistrust

Without local ownership, governance becomes transactional, not transformative. The absence of strong district-level accountability disconnects state capacity from grassroots expectations.

  • Re-engaging Youth Through District-Level Democracy

Districts must evolve from mere administrative divisions to dynamic civic spaces that nurture talent and democratic participation. This requires:

  1. Decentralised Development Outcomes
    • Disaggregate national schemes to district indicators
    • Track youth employment, skilling and innovation outcomes locally
  2. Accountable Political Representation
    • MPs already oversee many schemes at district level
    • Linking outcomes to constituency performance strengthens responsibility
  3. Transparent, Localised Monitoring
    • Making exclusion and disparities visible
    • Encouraging competition and solutions tailored to local context

This approach shifts youth from recipients of services to co-creators of development, restoring political agency at the grassroots.

  • Shared Responsibility for Inclusive Growth

A district-first model requires active participation not only from government but also from:

  • Political leadership → empowered to problem-solve locally
  • Private sector → committed investments beyond top-tier cities
  • Civil society and academia → enabling social innovation and accountability

This builds collaborative governance that bridges the gap between policy design and lived experience. It ensures elites convert intentions into concrete grassroots action — from skilling and innovation labs to district-level economic hubs.

  • District-Led Democracy: A Pathway to National Renewal

A youth-centred, district-first civic framework strengthens:

Impact Area

Democratic Outcome

Local livelihoods and entrepreneurship

Stronger domestic growth base

Citizen participation

Deeper trust in governance

Regional equity

Balanced national development

Social cohesion

Reduced polarisation and divisive politics

By creating tangible shared spaces of progress, districts can move India away from performative partisanship towards collective nation-building rooted in common aspirations.

Conclusion

India’s future depends on whether districts become engines of opportunity or remain administrative backwaters. With the world’s largest youth cohort, the costs of inaction are alarming — a wasted demographic dividend, declining trust in democracy, and deepening inequality. But the opportunity is historic: to reclaim districts as vibrant democratic commons where young people shape development and find meaningful pathways to growth. India already has a district-first bureaucracy; it must now build a district-first democracy—grounded in accountability, inclusion and civic engagement. By placing youth and districts at the heart of policy imagination, India can revitalise both its developmental trajectory and democratic fabric, ensuring a future defined not by fragmentation but by shared progress and national renewal.

Introduction

In September 2025, the European Union–India New Strategic Agenda outlined enhanced cooperation across prosperity, sustainability, and global governance. A notable milestone was the commitment to link India’s Carbon Market (ICM) with the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The proposed linkage implies that carbon prices paid by Indian industries will be deducted from CBAM levies at the EU border — preventing double taxation on embedded emissions and incentivising early decarbonisation.

This initiative represents a significant step toward North–South climate cooperation, but its success hinges on resolving structural, policy, and geopolitical frictions.

Body

India’s Carbon Market: A System Still in Transition

India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) is evolving from:

  • project-based offsets ➜ toward compliance-grade emissions caps

But currently:

  • Credits tied to emission intensity, not absolute caps
  • Weak monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) frameworks
  • No independent regulatory authority equivalent to the EU’s ETS Registry or Market Stability Reserve

In contrast:

Parameter

EU ETS

India ICM

Market maturity

20 years

Newly evolving

Carbon cap

Absolute & legally binding

Fragmented, sector-limited approach

Enforcement

Strict penalties

Limited deterrence

Carbon price

€60–80/tonne

€5–10/tonne

➡ EU may deem Indian credits as low integrity, undermining expected CBAM deductions.

Price Gap and Industrial Pushback: Political Economy Risks

Low domestic carbon prices could result in:

  • Partial deductions under CBAM rules
  • Indian exporters paying both Indian compliance costs + full CBAM levy

This raises:

  • Competitiveness concerns for sectors like steel, aluminium, fertilisers, cement
  • Risk of industrial lobbying to dilute ICM compliance standards

Bridging price differences demands:

  • carbon price floor agreement
  • targeted decarbonisation support for hard-to-abate sectors

Both are politically sensitive, requiring fiscal and diplomatic balancing.

Sovereignty vs. Cooperation: A Strategic Contradiction

India has historically opposed CBAM at WTO forums as:

  • Unilateral and border taxation in disguise
  • Violating CBDR-RC (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities) principle

Linking the systems implies:

  • De facto acceptance of CBAM architecture
  • Brussels influencing India’s domestic climate policy ambition

Sovereignty concern:

EU judges whether India’s climate policy is “sufficient,” impacting trade flows.

Disputes are likely if:

  • Deduction is denied due to perceived “underpricing”
  • India adjusts climate policy due to domestic pressures

➡ A small policy shift in India could trigger trade penalties overnight.

Legal and Institutional Hurdles

  1. 1. WTO compatibility of CBAM remains disputed
  2. 2. Lack of transparent emissions accounting for export-bound products
  3. 3. Trust deficit due to earlier carbon finance failures like CDM dilution

Thus, institutional scaffolding is critical:

  • Strong independent regulator
  • Robust MRV system
  • Credible enforcement with penalties
  • Transparent product-level carbon footprinting

Potential Win–Win Outcomes

Benefit for EU

Benefit for India

Global supply chains align to EU climate goals

Exporters avoid penalisation

Proof of concept for carbon market diplomacy

Fast-tracks industrial decarbonisation

Strengthens global climate ambitions

Enhances competitiveness in the green trade era

→ Could become a template for North–South climate market integration.

Policy Way Forward

To ensure durability of the linkage:

  • Strengthen ICM architecture → absolute caps, independent oversight
  • Align carbon prices via phased sectoral benchmarks and transition funds
  • Establish a joint EU–India carbon council for conflict resolution
  • Enhance transparency in MRV and registries
  • Defend policy sovereignty and demand predictable deductions
  • Design domestic support (technology + finance) for MSME exporters

Strategic diplomacy + domestic institutional reform are non-negotiable.

Conclusion

A functioning carbon market linkage between India and EU represents a landmark in climate-aligned trade: enabling India’s exporters to avoid double carbon penalties while boosting green competitiveness. Yet, unresolved gaps in market maturity, pricing, and policy alignment threaten to turn the promise into a paper achievement.

Ensuring success requires:

✔ credible carbon governance at home

✔ assured deductibility under CBAM

✔ respect for India’s policy space

✔ sustained trust-building between both economies

If carefully steered, this initiative can emerge as a pioneering North–South climate cooperation model, aligning trade flows with global net-zero goals.

PYQs for Practice

  1. 1. “CBAM reflects the green protectionism of the Global North.” Critically examine. (GS-III, 2023)
    2. Discuss how carbon pricing can reconcile industrial competitiveness with climate goals in India. (GS-III)
    3. “India’s climate diplomacy is increasingly trade-linked.” Elaborate with examples. (GS-II)
    4. Examine the institutional challenges in building carbon markets in developing economies. (GS-III)

Introduction

India’s maritime strategy increasingly emphasises port-led development to enhance regional connectivity, economic growth and strategic positioning in the Indo-Pacific. The proposed transshipment port at Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar — part of a multi-billion-dollar infrastructure plan — has been promoted as a game-changing gateway to transform India into a major regional trade and security hub. Supporters argue that the port will break dependence on foreign transshipment terminals such as Colombo and Singapore. However, growing concerns highlight that its commercial viability, logistical feasibility and ecological trade-offs may undermine its promise, raising critical questions about evidence-based infrastructure planning in a fragile environment.

Body

  1. 1. The Flawed Commercial Rationale

The core argument in favour of the port rests on reducing India’s dependency on external hubs and capturing transshipment traffic.

Yet, global experience shows:

  • Infrastructure alone does not attract cargo

Ports thrive on:

  • strong feeder networks
  • major shipping line commitments
  • robust cargo base
  • logistics ecosystem & hinterland linkages

Great Nicobar lacks all four.

Indicators

Colombo

Singapore

Great Nicobar

Hinterland cargo

Strong

Global

None

Existing feeder network

Dense regional web

Global intermodal

Absent

Shipping relationships

Long-standing

High

Uncertain

Distance from mainland

Close

Central

1,200 km away

Galathea Bay would require every container to be imported/exported, escalating operating costs. The target of handling 16+ million TEUs is unrealistic when Colombo — despite strong fundamentals — handles <8 million TEUs annually.

➡ No local industrial economy = no organic cargo demand.

  1. 2. Strategic Argument: Not Fully Convincing

Proponents cite maritime security to justify investment. India already operates INS Baaz for surveillance in the eastern Indian Ocean.

Key issues:

  • A commercial port is not essential for defence objectives
  • China has not yet posed direct naval challenges in the area
  • Strategic aims must be pursued transparently, not masked as commercial ventures

➡ Conflating commercial logic with defence goals risks misallocation of resources.

  1. 3. Geography & Connectivity Constraints

Great Nicobar’s remote location imposes:

  • High transport and provisioning costs
  • Longer turnaround times
  • Disruption of shipping schedules

Unlike Vizhinjam (near major sea lanes) or Vadhavan (with industrial hinterland), Great Nicobar is disconnected from core maritime corridors.

Claims of a seamless maritime arc across these ports overlook distinct market realities and geography-specific constraints.

  1. 4. Lessons from Other Indian Ports

India has struggled to attract sustained transshipment interest despite investments:

  • Vallarpadam Port, Kochi — underutilised due to weak feeder and carrier ties
  • Krishnapatnam Port, Andhra Pradesh — container services withdrawn in 2024 due to high operational costs

Even the early momentum at Vizhinjam is heavily dependent on a single shipping line (MSC) eyeing ownership stakes.

➡ Lack of carrier loyalty = uncertain commercial success.

  1. 5. Ecological and Indigenous Concerns (Though Underplayed Here)

The project threatens:

  • pristine rainforests
  • endangered species (e.g., Nicobar mega fauna)
  • indigenous Shompen and Nicobarese communities
  • fragile tectonic zone prone to earthquakes and tsunamis

Environmental and social impact costs may ultimately outweigh financial returns.

➡ Economic projections must incorporate ecological risk pricing.

Conclusion

The Great Nicobar port project symbolises India’s ambition to assert maritime leadership. However, ambition must be grounded in commercial logic, environmental prudence, and strategic clarity. Without a viable cargo base, shipping partnerships or supporting logistics ecosystem, Galathea Bay risks becoming a high-cost infrastructure liability rather than a transformative maritime asset.

  • Before irreversible ecological damage and community displacement occur, India must reassess: whether projected gains are realistic
  • if alternatives exist with better cost-benefit outcomes
  • how strategic security can be enhanced without flawed commercial premises

A world-class port empty of ships will yield neither influence nor development. Great Nicobar must not become a case study of misplaced maritime aspirations.

PYQs for Practice (GS-II / GS-III)

  1. 1. Evaluate the economic and environmental trade-offs involved in port-led development in ecologically sensitive regions. (GS-III, 2022)
  2. 2. “India’s maritime vision must balance strategic imperatives with sustainable development goals.” Discuss. (GS-III)
  3. 3. Explain how logistics infrastructure influences India’s participation in global shipping networks. (GS-III)
  4. 4. Critically assess the role of island territories in India’s Indo-Pacific strategy. (GS-II)

Introduction

Global crude oil markets are witnessing a significant shift driven by technological advancements, demand stagnation in developed economies, and rising production from both OPEC+ and non-OPEC countries. The Brent benchmark — currently at around $61 per barrel — has fallen by nearly 16% in 2025, despite geopolitical tensions. For India, the world’s third-largest oil importer, these developments have far-reaching economic, geopolitical, and energy security implications. Lower oil prices offer temporary relief, but structural vulnerabilities necessitate long-term strategic planning.

Body

Structural Trends in Global Oil Supply and Demand

  1. Demand Plateauing Globally
  • Growth in Global South continues from a low base
  • Industrialised nations see stagnation due to:
    • Slow post-pandemic recovery
    • Climate action policies
    • Rapid adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) — in China, EVs constitute 50% of new sales
  • Global demand expected to rise only 2% (1.3 mbpd) in 2025
    1. Supply Surge from Multiple Producers
  • Production increased 6 mbpd over last year
  • Major contributors:
    • OPEC+ – 1 mbpd
    • S., Canada, Brazil, Guyana, Argentina — remaining share

Result → Supply Overhang → Falling Prices

Strategic reserves are being replenished and over 100 million barrels lie unsold on tankers — creating additional downward pressure.

Market Uncertainty Due to Conflicting Projections

Two key institutions present divergent forecasts:

Institution

Projection for 2026

Implication

OPEC

Supply below demand by ~50,000 bpd

Market tightening

IEA

Supply exceeds demand by ~4 mbpd

Persistent glut & low prices

Think tanks largely support the IEA view → Brent may decline further by 10–20% to “low fifties”.

Geopolitical & Economic Wildcards

Despite disruptions — Gaza, Ukraine, China-U.S. tariff war — prices have not risen. Other factors to watch:

  • Sanction reversals (Russia, Iran, Venezuela)
  • West Asian tensions
  • Weak global trade outlook (IMF WEO projects 1–3.2% growth till 2026)
  • Potential tariff de-escalation under U.S. policy resets

Together, these risk factors tilt global crude toward bearish scenarios.

Implications for India

  1. Economic Gains — Strong Tailwinds
  • $1 drop in crude → improves India’s Current Account Deficit by $1.6 billion
  • Reduced inflation and subsidy burden
  • Better fiscal balance → boosts capital expenditure
  • Lower import bill → strengthens rupee stability
  1. Geopolitical Advantage
  • Less dependence on discounted Russian crude → reduces friction with the U.S.
  • Diversified sourcing strengthens strategic autonomy

Risks & Vulnerabilities

  • West Asian slowdown → could stagnate:
    • Remittances (major inflow from Gulf region)
    • Exports to oil-rich economies
    • Investments from sovereign wealth funds
  • Cyclical volatility → Prices could rebound quickly due to:
    • Sudden supply disruptions
    • Production cuts by OPEC+
    • Geopolitical escalations

Crude continues to be a “slippery commodity”, influenced as much by politics as by economics.

Way Forward for India

To leverage the current price scenario sustainably, India must:

  1. 1. Accelerate energy diversification — EVs, green hydrogen, biofuels
  2. 2. Strengthen Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) during low-price windows
  3. 3. Promote demand-side efficiency — fuel standards, public transport
  4. 4. Mitigate fiscal dependence on volatile oil revenues
  5. 5. Enhance diplomatic engagement with both producers and consumers

Long-term reforms should reduce price vulnerability and help meet climate targets under Panchamrit commitments.

 

Conclusion

The current downturn in global crude oil prices provides India a crucial — though temporary — macroeconomic relief, strengthening growth prospects and strategic choices in foreign policy. However, structural shifts in energy markets, geopolitical uncertainties, and India’s continued dependence on oil importation emphasize the need for a resilient and diversified energy strategy. Harnessing these tailwinds wisely today will determine India’s energy security and economic stability in the future.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS3 (2022): How do fluctuations in global crude oil prices impact India’s macroeconomic stability?
  • GS3 (2020): Discuss India’s strategies for achieving long-term energy security.
  • GS2 (2016): Evaluate India’s West Asia policy in the context of energy diplomacy.

Introduction

The world economy is undergoing a profound transformation, challenging long-standing norms of globalisation and liberal capitalism. The post-Cold War economic order, once anchored in free trade, open markets, and U.S.-led financial institutions, is now being disrupted by a new era of geo-economic competition — primarily between the United States and China. This contest is reconfiguring trade flows, production networks, and financial architectures, while offering the Global South, particularly India, a historic opportunity to shape a more equitable world order.

Body

  1. The Rise of Populist-Autocratic Capitalism

Across major economies, a state-capital nexus has emerged, replacing laissez-faire capitalism with crony capitalism.

  • Governments led by populist-autocrats increasingly rely on corporate oligopolies for political support, exchanging regulatory and fiscal concessions for loyalty.
  • This undermines the social contract, prioritising the interests of corporations over citizens and eroding public trust.
  • The result is a distortion of national priorities — public assets mortgaged for private gain and inequality deepened within and across nations.
  1. The Return of Geo-Economics and Power Politics

Strategic competition now dominates global trade and investment patterns:

  • The United States is reshaping global production networks to secure its strategic interests — from urging Taiwan to shift semiconductor fabrication to the U.S., to securing rare-earth supplies from Central Asia and Africa.
  • The weaponisation of supply chains and technology (such as sanctions and export controls) has revived spheres of influence thinking, destabilising regions from Europe to West Asia.
  • The emergence of ecological imperialism, with resource control and climate-linked geopolitics, highlights how energy and environment are now central to statecraft.
  1. Big Tech, Digital Colonialism, and Economic Sovereignty

The digital revolution, once seen as democratising, is now enabling digital authoritarianism and economic dependency.

  • Big Tech corporations and cloud capitalists extract economic rents globally, influencing political outcomes and public opinion.
  • Instruments like the AI Action Plan, Cloud Act, and SWIFT weaponisation, coupled with the rollout of state-backed digital currencies, threaten the sovereignty of smaller nations.
  • Over 100 central banks are experimenting with digital-currency ecosystems, which could streamline global payments but weaken national control over monetary policy and AML frameworks.
  1. Decline of Developmental Aid and Widening Inequality

Cuts in G-7 developmental assistance have aggravated poverty and instability across the Global South.

  • A $44 billion reduction in development funding may push 7 million Africans into poverty by 2026.
  • Withdrawal of grants in Nepal caused large-scale migration (≈ 8 lakh workers), while funding cuts to the World Food Programme in 2023 affected 7 million people, fuelling insurgencies in regions such as the Sahel.
  • These crises illustrate the erosion of global solidarity and the return of economic nationalism.
  1. The Global South’s Pushback

In response, emerging economies are experimenting with alternative mechanisms:

  • Bilateral trade in local currencies, gold accumulation, energy de-dollarisation, and regional trade pacts.
  • Such initiatives aim to insulate their economies from sanctions, tariffs, and currency shocks — potentially heralding a multi-polar economic order.
  1. Opportunities for India and the Global South

Despite disruptions, this transformation presents a strategic opening for India:

  • Historically, India and China accounted for the majority of global GDP for over 1,800 years; reclaiming this role requires leadership in crafting a New Economic Deal.
  • India can champion reforms in international financial institutions for fairer representation and push for a debt-relief framework that prevents structural adjustment-induced democratic backsliding.
  • Through BRICS+, South-South partnerships, and fair-trade policies, India can promote equitable globalisation while safeguarding domestic industries.
  1. Recalibrating Domestic Economic Policy

To leverage these global shifts, India must pursue internal reforms:

  • Strengthen the state’s developmental role in critical sectors — energy, infrastructure, data, health, and agriculture — while curbing monopolies through robust anti-trust laws.
  • Establish sovereign wealth funds (like Norway’s) to reinvest resource surpluses in public welfare.
  • Reinvigorate PSUs as strategic enterprises rather than privatising them indiscriminately.
  • Invest in research, education, and skill development to boost innovation capacity and global competitiveness.
  • Ensure digital and financial systems remain aligned with constitutional and developmental objectives, not merely profit motives.
  1. Reimagining Foreign Policy

India’s external engagement must prioritise strategic autonomy — true non-alignment rather than performative multi-alignment.

  • This calls for bipartisan diplomacy, ensuring continuity of foreign relations regardless of political transitions.
  • A coherent “India Way” should integrate economic diplomacy with democratic values, using trade, aid, and technology partnerships to advance both national security and global equity.

Conclusion

The global economic transformation is not merely a crisis but a turning point. As established powers weaponise interdependence and digital systems, the Global South faces the choice of submission or innovation. For India, the path forward lies in balancing economic sovereignty with global engagement, state-led equity with private-sector dynamism, and non-alignment with active global leadership. Harnessing this transformation will determine whether India can truly emerge as a shaper of the 21st-century world order.

Previous Year UPSC Questions (Related Themes)

GS Paper III (Economy & International Relations):

  1. “Globalisation is transforming into weaponised interdependence.” Discuss in the context of U.S.–China rivalry and its implications for India. (UPSC 2023 Expected Trend)
  2. “How do digital currencies and Big Tech platforms challenge national economic sovereignty?” (UPSC 2022)
  3. “Examine the role of the Global South in shaping a new global economic order amid rising protectionism.” (UPSC 2021)
  4. “Critically analyse whether India’s non-alignment policy remains relevant in a world of shifting geo-economic alignments.” (UPSC 2020)

 “In a world where power is shifting from capitals to algorithms, India must steer the transformation — not just survive it.”

Introduction

India’s clean energy future depends on a resource often overlooked in popular discussions — critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and rare earth elements (REEs). These minerals form the backbone of technologies driving the green transition — from electric vehicles (EVs) and solar panels to wind turbines and battery storage systems. As India targets 500 GW of renewable capacity by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2070, ensuring reliable access to these resources has become a strategic imperative. However, India’s import dependence, combined with global supply chain vulnerabilities, underscores the urgent need to build a self-reliant critical minerals ecosystem through domestic exploration, recycling, and international cooperation.

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  1. Critical Minerals: The Foundation of India’s Green Transition
  • Lithium and cobalt are vital for EV batteries, while REEs power magnets in wind turbines and solar technologies.
  • India’s EV market is projected to grow at 49% CAGR (2023–2030) under the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS 2024), boosting demand for batteries.
  • The battery storage market was worth $2.8 billion in 2023 and is expected to expand rapidly with renewable energy integration.

Yet, India currently imports:

  • Nearly 100% of its lithium, cobalt, and nickel, and
  • Over 90% of its REEs, mainly from China, which controls 60% of global REE production and 85% of processing capacity. This dependency threatens both energy security and industrial competitiveness, necessitating rapid development of domestic resources and processing capabilities.
  1. Domestic Resource Potential and Policy Reforms

India holds significant untapped mineral reserves:

  • Lithium in Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan,
  • REEs in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

Key policy milestones include:

  • National Mineral Exploration Policy (NMEP) 2016 – enhanced exploration via advanced geophysical surveys.
  • Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment 2021 – encouraged private participation.
  • Geological Survey of India (2023) – identified 9 million tonnes of inferred lithium resources in J&K.
  • Auctions (2023-24) – 20 critical-mineral blocks (lithium, graphite, REEs) drew strong bids from Indian and global firms.

However, exploration is only the first step. India contributes less than 1% of global REE production. Scaling up requires:

  • Public–Private Partnerships (PPP) for refining and processing.
  • Fiscal incentives — subsidies, tax breaks, R&D grants — to promote processing infrastructure and recycling.
  1. Investment and Institutional Push: From Policy to Practice

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act 2023 liberalised exploration but challenges persist — high costs, regulatory bottlenecks, and environmental clearances.

  • Mining contributes only 5% to India’s GDP, compared to 13.6% in Australia.
  • The National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) (₹34,300 crore outlay) aims to strengthen value chains across exploration, processing, and recycling.

Institutional actors include:

  • NMDC (through its Australian arm) – entering the critical minerals sector.
  • IREL (India) Ltd. – expanding REE extraction (neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium).
  • KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.), formed in 2019 – tasked with overseas acquisitions of mineral assets.
  • E-Waste (Management) Rules 2022 – encourage recovery of rare materials from discarded electronics.
  1. Recycling and Circular Economy: Turning Waste into Wealth

India generates ~4 million metric tonnes of e-waste annually, yet only 10% is formally recycled.

  • The Battery Waste Management Rules 2022 introduced recycling targets but face implementation gaps.
  • Establishing public-private recycling hubs can recover valuable metals from used batteries and electronic components.

Transitioning to a circular economy requires:

  • Modernised infrastructure – mechanised mines, automated processing plants, waste-management systems.
  • Urban mining initiatives to extract critical materials from electronic waste streams.
  • R&D investments in green metallurgy and recycling technologies, reducing environmental impact and import dependence.
  1. Building a Resilient Supply Chain and Global Partnerships

India’s strategy must combine domestic self-reliance with strategic international alliances:

  • Partner with resource-rich nations (Australia, Chile, Argentina, African nations) for long-term supply contracts.
  • Collaborate through forums like the Quad’s Critical Minerals Partnership and India–Australia Renewable Energy Partnership for joint research and co-investment.
  • Integrate critical mineral planning with Atmanirbhar Bharat, Make in India, and Green Hydrogen Mission initiatives to align industry, innovation, and sustainability.

Conclusion

Critical minerals are the linchpin of India’s clean energy revolution. Strengthening exploration, processing, and recycling will transform India from a resource-dependent importer into a supply-chain leader in the global green economy. Success depends on policy coherence, state-industry collaboration, and technological innovation. The National Critical Mineral Mission, if implemented effectively, can turn India’s mineral potential into a strategic advantage — driving energy security, employment, and sustainable industrialisation under Viksit Bharat @ 2047.

Previous Year UPSC Questions (Related Themes)

GS Paper III (Economy, Environment, Energy):

  1. “Critically examine the role of critical minerals in India’s renewable energy transition and industrial policy.” (UPSC 2023 Expected Trend)
  2. “Discuss how India’s mineral resource policy can balance economic growth with environmental sustainability.” (UPSC 2021)
  3. “Evaluate India’s preparedness for the global shift toward electric mobility and green hydrogen.” (UPSC 2022)
  4. “The circular economy is central to achieving energy and resource security in India.” (UPSC 2020)

 “Critical minerals are the new oil of the 21st century — securing them today will decide who powers the clean economies of tomorrow.”

Introduction

India’s economic trajectory has often oscillated between optimism and caution. While recent quarterly data indicates a 7.8% GDP growth in Q1 2025–26, economists such as Dr. C. Rangarajan, former RBI Governor, maintain that India’s potential growth rate—the sustainable long-term rate without triggering inflationary pressures—remains around 6.5%. Understanding this potential is vital for macroeconomic planning, investment strategy, and fiscal policy design, especially amid global uncertainties and post-pandemic structural adjustments.

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  1. Understanding Potential Growth Rate and ICOR
  • The potential growth rate represents the economy’s capacity to grow without overheating, determined by factors like capital formation, productivity, and efficiency.
  • Using the Incremental Capital Output Ratio (ICOR) method, where [\text{Potential Growth} = \frac{\text{Investment Rate (GFCFR)}}{\text{ICOR}}, ] India’s potential growth stands at around 5%, based on an average Gross Fixed Capital Formation Rate (GFCFR) of 33.6% and an ICOR of 5.2.
  • The GFCFR has remained stable at 5–33.7% between 2022–23 and 2024–25, indicating no structural break in investment trends.
  1. Trends in Output and Investment
  • Real GDP growth during 2022–23 to 2024–25 averaged 8%, but Q1 growth patterns suggest moderation.
  • Manufacturing recorded 7% growth in Q1 2025–26, higher than the previous three-year Q1 average of 5.8%, showing industrial recovery.
  • However, key service sectors (trade, finance, public administration) saw slower growth compared to their earlier double-digit averages.
  • Public investment has risen sharply, with its share in GFCF increasing from 6% (2021–22) to 25.1% (2023–24), largely in infrastructure. Yet, central capital expenditure growth declined from 28.9% in 2023–24 to 10.8% in 2024–25, showing a slowdown in fiscal stimulus.
  1. Factors Limiting Potential Growth
  • Stagnant private investment: The private corporate sector’s share in total GFCF fell from 37% (2021–22) to 4% (2023–24).
  • High ICOR: Reflects inefficiency in capital use, partly due to technology gaps, regulatory bottlenecks, and capacity underutilisation.
  • External headwinds: Sluggish global trade, protectionism, and supply chain shifts have turned net exports negative (-1.4% points) in Q1 2025–26.
  • Capital obsolescence: Ageing capital stock and rapid technological changes (AI, Gen-AI) necessitate frequent reinvestment, dampening net capital formation.
  1. Measures to Raise Potential Growth
  • Boost Private Investment:
    • Address credit access, regulatory predictability, and land-labour reforms.
    • Incentivise private infrastructure and manufacturing via PLI 2.0
  • Enhance Capital Efficiency (Reduce ICOR):
    • Promote technology diffusion and productivity-led growth, especially through AI and digital transformation.
  • Strengthen Public–Private Complementarity:
    • Maintain high-quality public capex in logistics, energy, and connectivity to crowd in private investment.
  • Diversify Trade and Investment Links:
    • Pursue trade diversification under FTA frameworks with EU, UAE, and East Asia.
  • Institutional Reforms:
    • Deepen capital markets and expedite project clearances to improve investment cycle turnaround.

Conclusion

India’s potential growth rate of 6.5% represents a realistic equilibrium between its current capital formation capacity and efficiency levels. Raising it sustainably to 7–7.5% demands a structural shift—reviving private investment, improving productivity, and leveraging technology-led transformation. Policymakers must focus on crowding in private capital, sustaining public infrastructure momentum, and creating an ecosystem where investment and innovation reinforce each other. In a turbulent global environment, sustained efficiency, not exuberant expansion, will define India’s next growth story.

Related Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • GS Paper III (2023): “Discuss the role of capital formation and productivity in sustaining high economic growth in India.”
  • GS Paper III (2021): “Investment-led growth can play a pivotal role in India’s post-pandemic recovery.” Examine.
  • GS Paper III (2018): “What are the determinants of potential growth rate in an emerging economy like India?”
  • GS Paper III (2016): “How does the incremental capital output ratio (ICOR) help in explaining the efficiency of investment in India’s growth process?”

 

Sources:

  • Rangarajan, “Estimating India’s Potential Growth Rate,” The Hindu, Oct 2025
  • Economic Survey 2024–25 (Vol. II: Investment and Growth Chapter)
  • RBI Annual Report 2025
  • NITI Aayog: India @100 Strategy Document (2024)

Introduction

India is at a pivotal juncture where its demographic structure offers a decisive economic opportunity. With 133 million new entrants expected into the working-age population over the next 25 years (CII estimate), India holds nearly 18% of the increase in global labour force. However, this demographic dividend is time-bound — with worker numbers peaking by 2043. Ensuring productive employment is therefore a national imperative to drive inclusive growth, reduce disparities, and sustain consumption-led economic expansion.

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Need for a Coordinated National Framework

Despite multiple skill, employment, and welfare initiatives, India lacks a unified approach to job creation. Challenges persist due to:

  • Fragmented policymaking between Centre and States
  • Skill-job mismatch, especially among graduates
  • Regional inequalities and gender gaps
  • Weak labour market mobility systems

A National Integrated Employment Policy must address both demand (sectoral growth, investment) and supply (skills, mobility, inclusion) side constraints.

Key proposals:

  • Consolidate existing schemes under an Empowered Group of Secretaries
  • Localized execution through District Planning Committees
  • Time-bound employment targets and sector prioritisation

Addressing Skill Gaps & Labour Market Frictions

  • College curricula must be transformed for industry-readiness
  • Incorporation of AI, robotics, and emerging tech skills
  • Improved migration policies for a unified national labour market (“One India” approach to mobility)

Timely implementation of the four Labour Codes with smooth transition guidelines will boost formalisation and compliance.

Prioritising High-Employment Sectors

Labour-intensive domains must anchor job creation strategies:

  • Textiles & apparel
  • Tourism and hospitality
  • Agro-processing
  • Real estate & construction
  • Healthcare

MSMEs — currently supporting 25 crore jobs — require:

  • Easier finance and technology adoption
  • Market expansion opportunities
  • Holistic skilling programmes
    → To drive “growth with jobs”

An Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme may be piloted to cushion distress among migrant and informal workers in cities.

Harnessing the Gig Economy

With 80 lakh–1.8 crore workers, projected to reach 9 crore by 2030:

  • Gig platforms enable employment in Tier-2/Tier-3 cities
  • Need for a national gig policy that ensures:
  • Worker registry to preserve employment history
  • Fair contracts, safety norms, dispute resolution
  • Skilling and financial access
  • Coverage under social security nets

With proper regulations, the gig sector can become a pillar of future labour markets and formalisation.

Ensuring Job Quality and Inclusion

Beyond jobs quantity, job dignity matters:

  • Better wages and safe working conditions
  • Social security and healthcare
  • Affordable housing near industrial clusters for mobility
  • Prioritisation of underdeveloped districts to reduce regional divide

Boosting female labour participation (currently ~25%):

  • Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) scheme for women hiring
  • Formalising Anganwadi and ASHA workforce
  • Greater investment in childcare and eldercare
  • Campaigns to counter social norms restricting women’s work

Strengthening Employment Data Systems

Accurate, real-time labour data is critical for policymaking:

  • Dedicated task force to modernise survey methodology
  • Expanded coverage for rural and informal workforce
  • Reduced publication lag for timely assessment

Conclusion

Employment is central to equitable and resilient growth. With aligned investments, regulatory reforms, and targeted inclusion measures, India can convert its demographic advantage into sustained prosperity. A comprehensive national employment strategy — as recommended by industry bodies such as CII — is not merely an economic priority, but a foundational pillar of India’s path to Viksit Bharat 2047. Acting with urgency is the key to transforming the nation’s potential into a robust, job-rich future.

UPSC Mains Relevance

  • GS III: Employment, MSMEs, Labour reforms, Inclusive Growth, Demographic Trends
  • GS II: Centre–State coordination, Welfare schemes, Gender inclusion

PYQs for Practice

  1. 2023 – “India’s demographic dividend will remain unrealised without labour market reforms.” Analyse.
  2. 2020 – “MSMEs are critical for employment-led growth in India.” Discuss.
  3. 2018 – “Labour reforms are essential to enhance job creation in India.” Analyse.
  4. 2015 – “Skilling India’s youth is necessary to convert demographic dividend into demographic advantage.”

 

Introduction

Technological progress has continuously reshaped human civilisation — from bullock carts to high-speed transport, and handwritten notes to instant messaging. Despite dramatic shifts in tools and mediums, communication remains fundamentally a human-to-human interaction. In the era of Artificial Intelligence (AI), automation is redefining learning and work, but language — as a cultural and emotional construct — poses unique limitations for machines. This editorial explores why AI can assist language learning but cannot substitute its human essence.

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  1. Language: Beyond Mechanics and Rules

AI excels in structured and logic-driven fields such as mathematics, coding, and engineering. It can explain formulas, generate content, and provide instant academic support. However, language is not merely a set of grammatical rules — it is emotion, culture, rhythm, and context.

  • Machines may translate “I miss you” as “Te extraño,” but they cannot interpret the emotional weight of longing.
  • AI-generated sentences may be correct but can sound sterile — lacking humour, irony, or affection.

Translation transfers literal meaning, but not experiential meaning. Understanding a language requires immersion in its culture and context.

  1. The Human Experience of Language Learning

Language learning thrives on interaction — laughter, hesitation, mistakes, and shared experiences. Real fluency emerges when learners:

  • struggle to express a thought and are supported kindly,
  • celebrate the first perfectly understood joke,
  • learn norms of politeness and tone through social cues.

These lived moments build confidence and belonging — something AI cannot replicate. Empathy, emotional intelligence, and social bonding are core ingredients of communication.

  1. AI as a Support System, Not a Replacement

AI-driven tools bring notable benefits:

  • real-time pronunciation correction
  • personalised grammar feedback

efficient lesson planning for teachers

Yet, limitations persist:

  • lack of emotional understanding
  • inability to belong to linguistic communities
  • difficulty adapting to evolving slang, idioms, and cultural nuances

Machines may record language use, but they cannot participate in its evolution. Speech is a living rhythm — and belonging to that rhythm demands human connection.

  1. The Ethical Risk: Over-Reliance

The most concerning danger is not displacement but disengagement. Instant translation might tempt learners to avoid the hard work of acquiring a new tongue. But language learning instils:

  • patience
  • humility
  • appreciation of cultural diversity

These intangible values are essential to building bridges across societies.

Conclusion

As AI reshapes efficiency and access, it remains a mere assistant in the deeper realm of communication. Technology can help us talk across borders — but only human effort and empathy help us understand one another. The emotional, cultural, and relational essence of language will continue to outlast even the most advanced machines. In a technology-driven world, preserving the human heart of communication becomes not just necessary but urgent.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2023): “Digital technologies can help preserve India’s cultural heritage.” Discuss.
  • GS2 (2019): Do you think that bilingualism and mother-tongue instruction can strengthen Indian education?
  • GS4 (2021): Discuss empathy as a crucial element of human communication.

Introduction

India is embarking on a transformational journey by integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) into the school curriculum from Class 3 onwards starting 2026-27, in alignment with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. The aim is to equip learners with future-ready digital skills and prepare them for a fast-evolving, technology-driven workforce. Beyond curriculum revisions, this shift potentially redefines pedagogy, inclusivity, teacher roles, and the very nature of learning.

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  1. Teacher Preparedness: The First Challenge

The integration of AI is far from a simple technological upgrade — the real test lies in upskilling over one crore teachers across India.

  • Pilot projects in collaboration with Intel, IBM and NIELIT have trained more than 10,000 teachers since 2019.
  • AI tools are being introduced for lesson design, content creation, and feedback mechanisms.

However, bridging digital literacy gaps, adapting mindsets, and sustaining training at scale remain significant hurdles. Teacher readiness will determine how effectively AI benefits classrooms.

  1. Personalised and Adaptive Learning

AI promises a shift from standardised teaching towards customised learning pathways.

  • Real-time analytics assess student behaviour and cognitive pace.
  • Tailored support is provided for weaker areas (e.g., algebra)
  • Advanced learners receive challenges to maximise potential

AI-enabled inclusion supports learners with disabilities and regional language needs — a crucial gain in India’s socio-linguistic diversity.

  1. Human Element Remains Central

While AI can automate grading, attendance, and repetitive academic tasks, it cannot replace human empathy, mentorship, and critical-thinking facilitation.

  • AI augments teachers’ roles, allowing more time for value-based engagement.
  • Creativity, emotional intelligence, and collaboration are inherently human competencies.

Thus, the future classroom is envisioned as AI-assisted, teacher-led.

  1. Future Job Market Imperatives

AI will reshape India’s workforce significantly.

  • NITI Aayog projects that 2 million tech jobs could be displaced,
  • but 4 million new AI-driven jobs may emerge by 2030, demanding adaptability and digital fluency.

Early exposure to AI ensures that students evolve from passive job seekers to agile innovators who can ride the automation wave rather than be swept aside by it.

  1. Generative AI and Higher Education

Over half of India’s universities now use generative AI for:

  • student support through chatbots
  • interactive assessments
  • personalised study materials

This may substantially reduce learning divides across institutions but also necessitates safeguards to regulate data integrity, ethics and academic honesty.

  1. Inclusivity at the Core

AI’s greatest potential is in democratising education:

  • adaptive systems for differently-abled learners
  • speech-language models for multilingual accessibility

With careful implementation, AI could become a powerful equaliser in India’s diverse education system.

Conclusion

AI in education represents a landmark policy shift, offering opportunities to enhance quality, equity and employability. Yet, large-scale teacher capacity building, ethical governance, and digital access must be prioritised to avoid widening disparities. The transformation is underway — but its success will depend on ensuring that no learner is left behind in this AI-driven future.

AI may be transforming classrooms, but empowered educators and equitable access will decide India’s digital destiny.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS2 (2023): “Digital technologies can help preserve India’s cultural heritage.” Discuss.
  • GS3 (2020): Role of technology in addressing education and skilling gaps in India.
  • GS2 (2017): Challenges in teacher capacity and quality of school education.

Introduction

The May 2025 India–Pakistan standoff, though resolved primarily in the air domain, has reshaped the dynamics of deterrence in South Asia, shifting strategic attention towards the maritime theatre. Post-Operation Sindoor, calibrated signalling through naval deployments, missile tests, and public statements from both sides suggests a recalibrated deterrence posture. As evolving capabilities, external stakes, and geopolitical pressures converge in the Arabian Sea, the risk of maritime confrontation is emerging as a central concern in regional stability.

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Naval Posturing After Sindoor

India’s recent maritime signalling includes:

  • Forward deterrent posture under Operation Sindoor,
  • Warning statements from defence leadership on Sir Creek,
  • Induction of INS Nistar and naval patrols with the Philippines,
  • Indo-Pacific cooperation to counter Chinese presence in Pakistan (Karachi, Gwadar).

These developments demonstrate India’s intent to:

  • Assume a more proactive maritime role
  • Extend deterrence into the Indian Ocean and beyond

Pakistan, in turn, has:

  • Dispersed naval assets to reduce vulnerability,
  • Inducted the Hangor-class submarine (PNS Mangro),
  • Showcased ship-launched ballistic missile P282,
  • Conducted live-fire drills and missile tests proximate to Indian deployments.

Thus, the crisis has triggered parallel signalling, intensifying operational friction at sea.

Changing Maritime Balance

Traditional naval asymmetries reminiscent of 1971 or Kargil-era assumptions are narrowing.

India

Pakistan

Numerical and geographical advantage

Growing Chinese-designed fleet

Larger blue-water navy ambitions

A2/AD systems for denial strategy

Regional reach via Indo-Pacific

Turkey-supported modernization

India remains superior but faces modernization backlog, while Pakistan’s selective acquisitions complicate dominance calculations. Naval engagements also carry higher thresholds for escalation, raising stakes for both capitals.

Three Strategic Concerns

  1. 1. Escalation Control Challenges
  • Naval incidents persist longer than air skirmishes.
  • Historical memory of 1971 intensifies Pakistan’s insecurity.
  • Any limited maritime strike risks rapid escalation to full-scale war.

Gwadar’s evolution under CPEC adds psychological and strategic weight for Pakistan, making coercive naval signalling highly sensitive.

  1. 2. External Involvement
  • Chinese naval footprints in Pakistan erode India’s assumption of uncontested superiority.
  • Turkish support expands Pakistan’s naval network.
  • Joint India-Philippines patrols reflect counterbalancing within Indo-Pacific dynamics.

This triangular interaction increases uncertainty and pressures India to maintain initiative at sea.

  1. 3. Shifting Doctrines and Cognitive Gaps
  • Both sides operate using outdated crisis templates.
  • New technologies — hypersonics, autonomous drones — require fresh deterrence logic.
  • Parallel drills may reflect competing efforts to shape future crisis playbooks.

Misinterpretation of intent at sea could become a trigger for unintended escalation.

Conclusion

The maritime theatre is no longer a peripheral front in India-Pakistan crises — it may emerge as a decisive arena of deterrence and competition. Naval deployments now serve as continuous signalling platforms shaping perceptions of strength and resolve. While these interactions raise escalation risks, they may also encourage mutual learning, enhancing crisis stability over time.

For India, the strategic dilemma is whether to:

  • use maritime signalling as early crisis leverage, or
  • retain naval power as an escalatory reserve.

Modernisation of the fleet, emphasis on Indo-Pacific partnerships, and sustained deterrence-by-presence suggest that India seeks both — credible coercive options and expanded regional influence. Navigating this balance will determine how effectively India manages the future conflict template at sea.

UPSC Syllabus Link

  • GS Paper II: India and its neighbourhood relations; International maritime disputes
  • GS Paper III: Maritime security; Defence modernization; Emerging technologies in warfare

PYQs for Practice

  1. 2023 – India’s maritime security challenges in a multipolar Indo-Pacific—analyse.
  2. 2020 – Discuss the evolving role of the Indian Navy in national security.
  3. 2017 – “India must strengthen maritime diplomacy to enhance regional security.” Comment.
  4. 2016 – Impact of China’s naval presence in the Indian Ocean on India’s security.

 

Introduction

The Paris Agreement adopted at COP21 (2015) is a landmark in global climate governance, with 195 countries committing to limit global temperature rise well below 2°C and pursue efforts to keep 1.5°C within reach. A decade later, climate risks are accelerating — evident in extreme events from Uttarakhand cloudbursts to floods in Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir in 2025. Yet, the Paris framework has shifted world trajectories from a catastrophic 4–5°C warming path to an estimated 2–3°C scenario today. Though inadequate, this proves that multilateral collective action works and the global low-carbon transition is now irreversible.

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Paris Agreement: A Catalyst for Transformation

The Agreement is built upon:

  • Fairness and equity
  • Differentiated but ambitious national commitments (NDCs)
  • Climate justice and solidarity for vulnerable nations

It does not impose top-down mandates but respects national circumstances — enabling greater participation and legitimacy.

Energy Paradigm Shift: Fossils Losing Economic Edge

Over the past decade:

  • Renewables — solar, wind, hydro — have become cheapest energy sources
  • Clean energy is enhancing energy security and sovereignty
  • Fossil-fuel dependence is structurally declining

Electric mobility illustrates this transformation:

  • Nearly 20% of new global car sales are now electric
  • Battery innovation sharply reduced costs
  • Co-benefits: cleaner air, reduced import burden, green jobs

→ Global markets now favour climate-positive growth.

🇮🇳 India’s Leadership and the ISA Model

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) — conceived at COP21 by India and France — embodies South-South climate action:

  • 120+ member and signatory countries
  • Focus on:
    • Capacity building
    • Affordable finance for solar projects
    • Bridging energy access gaps in Global South

India’s achievements:

  • 50% of installed electricity capacity from non-fossil sources achieved 5 years ahead of 2030 target
  • Solar-led development aligned with:
    • Viksit Bharat@2047 vision
    • Net-zero target by 2070

→ India positions itself as the largest major economy to pursue sustainable development without repeating the fossil-fuel heavy industrialisation model.

Global Agenda for COP30, Belém: Five Strategic Priorities

Priority

Significance

1. Raise global mitigation ambition

Current efforts insufficient to keep 1.5°C alive

2. Just and inclusive transition

Protect vulnerable communities; expand climate finance (Loss & Damage Fund, GCF, CREWS)

3. Protect natural carbon sinks

Safeguard forests, mangroves, oceans like the Amazon & Sundarbans

4. Empower non-state actors

Businesses, cities, youth → key to project-level delivery

5. Science-based action

Support IPCC; counter misinformation shaping policy

France and India jointly push for predictable and innovative climate finance, including solidarity levies, and also co-chair CDRI to climate-proof global infrastructure.

Why the Transition is Unstoppable

Despite geopolitical tensions and uneven progress:

Driver of Irreversibility

Explanation

Climate impacts

Adaptation is now a survival necessity

Market investments

Global capital leaving fossil fuels permanently

Local governance

Green standards embedded in infrastructure planning

Public pressure

Youth activism and awareness accelerating policy action

Multilateral momentum

Collective success strengthens cooperation norms

→ Every additional year of delay raises economic loss, humanitarian distress and systemic risk.

Conclusion

The Paris Agreement has not fully delivered the 1.5°C pathway, but it bent the emissions trajectory away from catastrophic warming. Its first decade proves that multilateralism remains humanity’s best hope against the climate crisis. India and France’s partnership through ISA and CDRI demonstrates how coalitions of ambition can shape global outcomes.

To preserve a liveable planet, the urgency now is to accelerate transitions, ensure equity in burden-sharing, and anchor decisions in science, not short-term politics. The transformation initiated in Paris may face hurdles — but it is unstoppable, necessary, and morally inevitable.

UPSC GS-II/GS-III Linkages

  • Climate governance
  • Multilateral institutions & justice principles
  • India’s climate commitments: NDCs, ISA, CDRI
  • Energy transition & sustainable development

PYQs for Practice

  1. “The Paris Agreement is a step forward in combating climate change. Discuss its scope and challenges.” — GS-III 2016
  2. “Climate justice is equally important as climate action.” — GS-III 2021
  3. Discuss India’s role in global climate negotiations and commitments under its updated NDCs. — GS-II 2023
  4. Explain the importance of green finance in India’s transition toward a low-carbon economy. — GS-III 2022
  5. How far are multilateral platforms effective in dealing with global commons? — GS-II 2019

 

Introduction

As the world navigates the climate crisis, developing countries face the dual challenge of economic growth and decarbonisation. India, battling poverty and food insecurity, cannot pursue “degrowth” strategies. Instead, it seeks to decouple economic growth from emissions, leveraging clean technologies, renewable energy, and sustainable agriculture. Carbon credit mechanisms lie at the centre of this transition. But unless rights and equity safeguards are embedded, carbon markets risk reproducing colonial patterns of resource control — benefiting corporations while marginalising farmers, Scheduled Tribes, and vulnerable rural communities.

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Carbon Credit Market: Opportunities for India

A carbon credit denotes certified emission reduction or removal measured in CO₂ equivalent. These credits can be:

  • Generated through mitigation activities (solar, wind)
  • Achieved via sequestration (reforestation, agroforestry, soil carbon, biochar)

Global voluntary carbon credit retirement now exceeds 175–180 million credits annually — signaling a fast-growing market. India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) aims to:

  • Set emission intensity benchmarks for key sectors
  • Enable voluntary offset trading
  • Support national registry and exchange platforms

Draft methodologies already exist for:

  • Biomass
  • Compressed biogas
  • Low-emission paddy

Yet agriculture — where India has major potential — remains underrepresented:

  • Out of 64 Indian agricultural projects listed on Verra
  • Only 4 registered
  • None issued credits yet

➡ Weak farmer engagement, poor training, and caste-based inequities hinder access.

Risks: When Carbon Markets Mirror Colonial Structures

Without proper safeguards, carbon markets may:

  • Restrict customary land use
  • Disrupt grazing and forest access
  • Disempower local communities

Kenya offers crucial lessons:

Case

What Happened

Result

Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project

Restrictions on pastoral land; questionable FPIC processes; governance opacity

Verra credit suspension (2023 & 2025) + Kenyan court confirmation of procedural violations

Lake Turkana Wind Project

1,50,000 acres fenced off, blocking traditional grazing routes

Conflict, livelihood damage

These examples show how “green” investments can become extractive if consent is bypassed.

➡ India is vulnerable to similar outcomes — especially in A/R (afforestation and reforestation) projects on:

  • Village commons
  • Tribal lands
  • Forest fringes

Marginalised groups risk being pushed out while receiving minimal benefits.

Why Carbon Projects Are Vulnerable in India

  • Strong corporate leverage vs weak community agency
  • Lack of mandatory benefit-sharing disclosure
  • Top-down project design ignoring local ecology and culture
  • Weak recognition of customary land rights
  • No legal requirement for Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC)

The current CCTS focuses heavily on:

  1. registry compliance
  2. procedural integrity

But has gaps in:

  • land safeguards
  • revenue-sharing norms
  • community participation

➡ This can turn carbon markets into “modern plantations” — climate solutions built on social exclusion.

Way Forward: Balancing Climate Integrity With Social Justice

  1. Mandate FPIC & Land Rights Protections
  • Particularly for Adivasi, pastoralist and marginalised-caste communities
  • Avoid displacement or enclosure of commons
  1. Transparency in Benefit-Sharing
  • Public disclosure on payment flows to communities
  • Fair remuneration for farmers’ carbon stewardship
  1. Community-Centric Governance
  • Local cooperatives and panchayats as project co-owners
  • Capacity-building to reduce information asymmetry
  1. Avoid Overregulation
  • A light but strong regulatory architecture:
    • Clear safeguards + simple compliance
    • Adaptive monitoring mechanisms
  1. Third-Party Evaluation
  • Independent social & environmental audits
  • Accountability for developers and intermediaries

If designed inclusively, India’s carbon markets can deliver:

✔ rural income diversification

✔ environmental restoration

✔ strong climate targets under India’s NDCs

Conclusion

Carbon markets offer India a powerful tool to align climate ambition with development. But without rights-based safeguards, they risk deepening existing inequalities. The lessons from Kenya highlight that sustainability cannot come at the cost of vulnerable communities. India must therefore ensure its carbon market uplifts farmers and indigenous groups — not displace or silence them.

Climate policy must remain anchored in justice, fairness, and informed consent. Only then can India build a carbon market that protects the planet while empowering the people who nurture it.

UPSC PYQs for Practice

  • GS3 (2023): What are carbon markets and how do they help in reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
  • GS3 (2020): Discuss challenges and opportunities in the implementation of climate finance mechanisms in developing countries.
  • GS2 (2016): Examine the role of stakeholder participation in environmental governance.

Introduction

The successful trial of India’s first hydrogen-powered coach (July 2025) marks a historic leap in India’s green transport transformation. The Indian Railways, one of the world’s largest transport networks, is moving towards achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2030—a target four decades ahead of India’s national goal. This transition is not merely technological but structural, redefining how mobility, energy, and finance interact within India’s sustainable development model.

Body

  1. The Scale of the Transformation
  • Massive Network Decarbonisation: Over 45,000 km of broad-gauge routes have been electrified in the last decade, taking total electrification to 98%, drastically cutting diesel dependence.
  • Renewable Integration: Installed capacity includes 553 MW of solar, 103 MW of wind, and 100 MW of hybrid power (total 756 MW). More than 2,000 stations and service buildings run on solar energy.
  • Hydrogen Innovation: Under the Hydrogen for Heritage initiative, 35 hydrogen-fuel trains are being deployed, beginning with the first successful prototype at ICF, Chennai.
  • Energy Efficiency Milestones: Several railway offices, including in the Northeast Frontier zone, have received the “Shunya” net-zero certification from the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
  1. Multidimensional Green Strategy
  • Modal Shift to Rail Freight: Railways aims to increase its freight modal share to 45% by 2030, reducing road-based emissions. Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) alone are expected to avert 457 million tonnes of CO₂ over 30 years.
  • Green Infrastructure & Biofuels: New railway stations, colonies, and offices are being built as green-certified structures, while biofuel blends are being introduced for locomotives.
  1. The Green Finance Engine
  • Sovereign Green Bonds: Since FY2023, the Government of India has issued ₹58,000 crore worth of green bonds, of which ₹42,000 crore supports electric locomotives, metro expansion, and suburban rail electrification.
  • Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC): IRFC’s pioneering $500 million green bond (2017) and subsequent ₹7,500 crore loan to NTPC Green Energy (2025) highlight India’s leadership in climate-aligned transport financing.
  • Multilateral Support: The World Bank’s $245 million Rail Logistics Project (2022) aims to upgrade freight corridors and reduce congestion and emissions.
  1. Policy and Implementation Challenges
  • Decarbonising the Grid: The climate benefit of electrification is undermined if the power source remains coal-heavy. Direct procurement of renewables via long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) with solar and wind firms is essential.
  • Sustainable Last-Mile Connectivity: Stations should evolve into multi-modal green hubs integrating EV buses, bicycle-sharing, and walkways. Freight terminals must adopt electric or LNG vehicles for last-mile connectivity.
  • Rolling Stock Modernisation: Hydrogen fuel cell coaches for non-electrified lines, AI-driven energy optimisation, and lightweight coach designs can enhance efficiency.
  • Behavioural Change: Initiatives like green certification for trains, carbon labelling for freight, and public awareness campaigns can mobilise citizens as stakeholders in the climate mission.
  1. Expected Gains
  • Environmental Impact: Achieving net-zero by 2030 could prevent 60 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, equivalent to removing 13 million cars from roads.
  • Economic Payoff: Energy efficiency and electrification could yield ₹1 lakh crore in cumulative fuel savings by 2030, aligning fiscal prudence with environmental responsibility.

Conclusion

Indian Railways’ decarbonisation journey exemplifies “green growth at scale.” By coupling technological innovation with climate finance and institutional commitment, it demonstrates how large state-run enterprises can achieve sustainability without compromising efficiency. The challenge lies not in ambition but in execution—ensuring renewable energy sourcing, last-mile decarbonisation, and sustained private investment. If realised, this transformation could make Indian Railways a global model for net-zero public transport and a cornerstone of India’s 2047 “Viksit Bharat” vision.

Related Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • GS Paper III (2023): “Discuss India’s strategy for achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 and the role of transport sector reforms in it.”
  • GS Paper III (2021): “How can green finance catalyse India’s transition to a low-carbon economy?”
  • GS Paper III (2019): “Electric mobility and renewable energy integration are key to India’s sustainable urban transport. Explain.”
  • GS Paper III (2016): “Examine the role of Indian Railways in promoting sustainable development and reducing carbon footprint.”

Introduction

The Great Nicobar Island, a global biodiversity hotspot and carbon sink, is at the centre of a legal and ecological controversy. The Union government’s mega infrastructure plan—comprising a transshipment port, township, airport, and power plant—threatens to divert 13,000 hectares of pristine tropical forests, impacting indigenous habitats and fragile ecosystems. This debate transcends local development—it reopens the fundamental legal question: Can nature itself be granted legal rights to protect its integrity?

Body

  1. Ecological and Legal Context
  • The Andaman & Nicobar Islands host over 10% of India’s flora and fauna diversity, serving as vital carbon reservoirs and climate regulators (MoEFCC, 2024).
  • Yet, their development trajectory has been shaped by mainland-centric models with limited ecological sensitivity.
  • The Great Nicobar Project risks irreversible damage to rainforest ecosystems, coral reefs, and tribal livelihoods—particularly the Shompen and Nicobarese tribes, who depend on forest and marine resources for subsistence.
  1. Judicial Precedent: The Niyamgiri Hills Case (2013)
  • In Orissa Mining Corporation Ltd. v. Ministry of Environment & Forests (2013), the Supreme Court upheld the authority of gram sabhas under the Forest Rights Act (2006) to decide on forest diversion affecting tribal culture and livelihoods.
  • The Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha successfully resisted bauxite mining in the Niyamgiri Hills by asserting their cultural and religious rights over sacred land.
  • Applying this principle to Great Nicobar, the key question is whether the Tribal Council of Little and Great Nicobar was allowed to exercise similar competence before forest diversion.
    • Reports (The Hindu, August 2025) reveal that the Andaman Administration falsely claimed tribal rights were settled before project clearance — a potential violation of FRA provisions.
  • Thus, the spirit of participatory environmental governance enshrined in Niyamgiri remains unfulfilled.
  1. Rights of Nature: The Emerging Legal Paradigm
  • The failure of traditional environmental laws to prevent ecological destruction has led many countries to adopt “Earth Jurisprudence” or Rights of Nature frameworks — granting legal personhood to natural entities such as rivers, forests, and ecosystems.
  • Global precedents:
    • Ecuador (2008) – Constitutional rights for Pachamama (Mother Earth).
    • New Zealand (2017) – Whanganui River granted legal personhood with Māori guardians.
    • Colombia (2016) – Atrato River case recognised bio-cultural rights, integrating ecological protection with indigenous autonomy.
  • The intellectual foundation was laid by Christopher Stone’s 1972 essay, “Should Trees Have Standing?”, arguing that natural objects should have legal standing through guardians.
  1. India’s Experiment: From Ganga to Great Nicobar
  • The Uttarakhand High Court (2017) granted legal personhood to the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, appointing guardians to act on their behalf ( Salim v. State of Uttarakhand).
  • Although later stayed by the Supreme Court, it signalled a judicial willingness to explore non-anthropocentric legal frameworks.
  • Extending this reasoning, Great Nicobar’s forests and biodiversity zones could be recognised as rights-bearing entities, represented by guardianship councils comprising ecologists, tribal representatives, and local administrators.

Conclusion

The Great Nicobar project exemplifies a recurring dilemma in India’s development model — economic expansion versus ecological ethics.nRecognising nature’s intrinsic legal rights could bridge this gap by making ecosystems not just “resources” but stakeholders in law and governance. India’s environmental jurisprudence must now evolve from “protection for people” to “protection with nature”. In an era of accelerating climate change, legal personhood for ecosystems may well be the most rational path to achieving both ecological justice and sustainable development.

Linkages with UPSC Syllabus

  • GS Paper III:
    • Conservation, environmental pollution, and degradation.
    • Environmental impact assessment.
    • Government policies and interventions for environmental protection.
  • GS Paper II:
    • Governance, rights of vulnerable groups, and participatory decision-making.
    • Role of judiciary in environmental governance.

Previous Year UPSC Questions

  • “Environmental impact assessment has failed to achieve its objectives in India. Discuss.” (GS-III, 2022)
  • “To what extent can the concept of ‘sustainable development’ reconcile environmental protection with economic growth?” (GS-III, 2021)
  • “The judiciary in India has played a proactive role in environmental protection. Critically examine.” (GS-II, 2020)
  • “Recognising the legal rights of rivers and ecosystems is a step towards environmental justice.” (Essay Paper, 2019)

Introduction

India’s clean energy transition has entered a high-growth phase, reflected in its global leadership in solar expansion and renewable deployment. With 24.5 GW of additional solar capacity in 2024, India stands as the third-largest solar contributor globally. Clean energy already employs over 1 million people, contributing significantly to GDP and advancing energy security. Yet, even as India emerges as a major player in climate action — through the International Solar Alliance and rapid renewable uptake — a lack of sufficient, affordable climate finance threatens to slow momentum and jeopardise India’s 1.5°C-aligned pathway.

Body

Climate Finance: The Missing Backbone

Renewable transition has a strong economic rationale:

  • IRENA projects 8% average annual GDP growth through 2050 under a 1.5°C pathway — double the G20 average.
  • New frontiers: battery storage, decentralised grids, and green hydrogen are driving new opportunity clusters.

Yet, India faces a massive climate finance gap:

Source

Estimate

Global 1.5°C pathway requirement

$1.5 trillion by 2030

India’s national climate targets (MoF)

> $2.5 trillion by 2030

Finance is needed for:

  • Renewable generation + grid modernization
  • Large-scale battery adoption
  • Electric mobility and logistics
  • Low-carbon agriculture and industry transition

Current investments are not at the required scale.

Green Finance: Progress with Limits

India’s GSS+ (Green, Social, Sustainability) issuance crossed $55.9 billion (186% rise since 2021).
Green bonds represent 83% of this flow — expected to hit $100 billion by 2030.

However, equity gaps remain:

  • 84% of issuance comes from large corporates.
  • MSMEs, agri-tech, and smaller infra developers lack concessional finance.
  • Tier-II/III projects face governance and delivery risks deterring capital flows.

Successful instruments include:

  • Sovereign green bonds
  • SEBI’s social bonds
  • Solar Park Scheme auctions

But scaling private participation requires robust de-risking mechanisms.

What Needs to Be Done?

  1. 1. Expand Blended Finance Models
  • Partial and performance guarantees
  • Subordinated debt structures to reduce risk for private players
  • Target mid-sized and distributed clean energy projects
  1. 2. Mobilise Domestic Institutional Capital
    Unlock funds from:
  • EPFO, LIC, and pension/insurance funds
  • Sovereign wealth and infrastructure investment trusts

Enablers required:

  • Clear ESG-linked regulatory norms
  • Stable long-term project pipelines
  • Risk mitigation tools
  1. 3. Strengthen Carbon Market Mechanisms
    India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme must:
  • Ensure transparency and strong enforcement
  • Prioritize equity for small and rural stakeholders
  • Encourage corporate decarbonisation
  1. 4. Leverage Digital Innovation
  • Blockchain for climate finance traceability
  • AI-driven risk assessment for green investment portfolios
  • Digital monitoring of emission outcomes

Why Finance for Adaptation and Vulnerability Matters

Even with rapid mitigation:

  • India is highly climate-vulnerable
  • Adaptation funding remains negligible mitigation finance

Loss & damage finance must be:

  • Accessible to frontline communities
  • Aligned with disaster-resilient infrastructure
  • Integrated into development planning

Conclusion

India’s energy transformation proves that developing economies can lead global climate action. However, technology leadership must be matched with finance innovation. A bold expansion of climate finance — blending public capital, institutional resources, and private investments — is imperative to maintain momentum.

Building a robust, equitable climate finance ecosystem is essential not just to meet India’s climate goals, but to secure future-ready economic growth, job creation, and sustainable development pathways. India must appear not only as a leader in clean energy deployment but also as a global champion in financing the green transition.

UPSC Mains Relevance

  • GS III: Climate finance, Renewable energy, Sustainable development
  • GS II: Global cooperation, UNFCCC, International institutions

PYQs for Practice

  1. 2023 – “Green finance is crucial for India’s climate transition.” Analyse.
  2. 2021 – Assess India’s progress in renewable energy capacity expansion.
  3. 2017 – Discuss challenges in mobilizing climate finance for developing economies.

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