Introduction

  • The Uttarkashi disaster (August 2025), where at least 4 people died and over 60 went missing after a deluge in the Kheer Ganga river, reflects the permanent destabilisation risks in the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
  • The IMD (2024) reports a significant rise in extreme rainfall events in Himalayan states, with Uttarakhand recording a 28% increase in heavy rainfall incidents over the last decade.
  • Climate change, unregulated infrastructure, and poor silt management are creating “sleeping disasters” — latent vulnerabilities that trigger large-scale damage during intense precipitation.

Body

  1. Causes of the Uttarkashi Disaster
  • Extreme Rainfall: 30 cm recorded in 24 hours (Aug 3–5, 2025) — well above the district’s monsoon daily average.
  • Possible Cloudburst: IMD defines as ≥10 cm/hr over 10 sq km, but lack of high-altitude radars limits confirmation.
  • Soil Saturation & Silt Mobilisation: Continuous rainfall loosened slopes, releasing debris into river channels.
  • Infrastructure Impact: Road widening, hotels, and hydropower projects increased debris load and reduced river carrying capacity.
  1. Climate Change Linkages
  • IPCC AR6 (2023) – Himalayan region warming at 0.3°C per decade; increased probability of short-duration extreme rainfall.
  • MoEFCC Report (2024) – More frequent “rain-on-snow” events and glacier melt-induced floods.
  1. Amplifying Factors
  • Debris & Silt Accumulation: Hydropower tunnelling and road cuttings deposit silt in riverbeds, raising flood levels.
  • Deforestation & Land-Use Change: Reduces slope stability.
  • Unplanned Urbanisation: Construction in floodplains (e.g., Dharali town hotels).
  • Gaps in Monitoring: Limited Doppler Weather Radars (DWRs) in Uttarakhand — only 2 operational for the entire state.
  1. Impacts
  • Loss of Life & Livelihood: Tourism and agriculture disrupted; Army personnel casualties.
  • Infrastructure Damage: Roads, bridges, and hotels destroyed; evacuation challenges in high-altitude terrain.
  • Ecological Impact: Altered river morphology, destruction of riparian habitats.

Way Forward

  1. Silt and Debris Management
    • Annual surveys of silt deposition at vulnerable points using remote sensing.
    • Mandatory silt clearance for hydropower and road agencies before monsoon.
  2. Early Warning Systems
    • Expansion of DWR network and community-based rain gauges in upper catchments.
    • AI-based flood forecasting integrated with NDMA platforms.
  3. Climate-Resilient Infrastructure
    • Enforce Himalayan Construction Code with slope stability norms.
    • Limit tourism structures in flood-prone zones.
  4. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation
    • Afforestation with native species to stabilise slopes.
    • Restore natural floodplains to act as water buffers.
  5. Institutional Measures
    • State-level Himalayan Disaster Risk Observatory.
    • Periodic climate vulnerability assessments as per NDMA guidelines.

Conclusion

The Uttarkashi disaster is not an isolated freak event but part of a growing pattern driven by climate change, unsustainable development, and neglected silt management. Shifting from a reactive disaster relief model to a proactive risk reduction approach—through early warning systems, silt monitoring, and climate-adaptive infrastructure—is critical for safeguarding life, ecology, and livelihoods in the Himalayas.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper 3 – Disaster Management, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Conservation.
  • GS Paper 1 – Geographical features and their location, changes in critical geographical features.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • 2023 (GS 3): “Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process.” Explain with suitable examples.
  • 2022 (GS 3): “The Himalayas are highly prone to landslides.” Discuss causes and suggest mitigation strategies.
  • 2019 (GS 1): “Himalayan region is more prone to climate change impacts.” Examine.

Introduction

  • Microplastics are synthetic polymer particles less than 5 mm in size, originating either as primary microplastics (manufactured small particles such as microbeads) or secondary microplastics (resulting from degradation of larger plastics).
  • The Ministry of Earth Sciences (2025) survey found that along Indian coasts, the major sources are riverine inputs and abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing gear (ALDFG).
  • Globally, the FAO (2022) identifies fishing gear as a major contributor to marine debris, with serious implications for marine ecosystems, fisheries, and food safety.

Body

  1. Sources of Microplastics along Indian Coasts (MoES-NCCR Survey, 2022–25)
  • Riverine Inputs – Urban and industrial plastic waste entering rivers like Ganga, Godavari, and Mahanadi and flowing into seas.
  • ALDFG – Nets, lines, and traps lost during fishing activities.
  • Other Sources – Tourism-related litter, port activities, and ship-based waste.
  1. Recent Findings
  • West Coast Survey: 19 transects from Porbandar (Gujarat) to Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu).
  • East Coast Survey: 25 transects from Puri (Odisha) to Thoothukudi (Tamil Nadu).
  • FSSAI Studies: Microplastics detected in all sampled salt and sugar varieties (forms include fibres, pellets, films).
  1. Impacts
  • Marine Biodiversity: Ingestion by fish, crustaceans, turtles, seabirds → digestive blockage, starvation, reproductive harm.
  • Human Health: Bioaccumulation in seafood; potential links to tumours, hormonal disruption, and chronic toxicity (UNEP, 2023).
  • Economic: Loss of fishing income, tourism decline, and increased clean-up costs.
  • Climate Link: Plastics production and degradation release greenhouse gases like methane.
  1. Policy and Institutional Response in India
  • Plastic Waste Management Rules (Amendment, 2022) – Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic manufacturers.
  • Ban on Single-Use Plastics (July 2022) – Targets some microplastic precursors.
  • MoES-NCCR Marine Litter Policy – Ongoing monitoring of debris and microplastics.
  • FSSAI Project – Developing detection protocols for microplastics in food products.
  • Swachh Sagar Abhiyan – Coastal clean-up and awareness campaigns.

Way Forward

  1. Fishing Gear Management
    • Introduce mandatory gear marking and retrieval incentives.
    • Promote biodegradable fishing nets (pilot in Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
  2. Strengthen Riverine Waste Management
    • Install floating trash barriers on major rivers before they reach estuaries.
  3. Scientific Monitoring
    • Expand real-time microplastic detection networks in collaboration with NCCR and CSIR labs.
  4. Legal Enforcement & Global Cooperation
    • Ratify IMO’s Global Ghost Gear Initiative
    • Align with UN Plastic Treaty negotiations (expected 2025).
  5. Public Awareness & Industry Engagement
    • Incentivise fishers to return old gear under Buy-Back Programs.
    • Consumer awareness on microplastics in seafood and salt.

Conclusion

Microplastic pollution, particularly from abandoned fishing gear, is a multi-dimensional challenge impacting biodiversity, human health, and livelihoods. India’s progress through Plastic Waste Management Rules, MoES monitoring, and FSSAI research is commendable, but enforcement gaps, lack of biodegradable alternatives, and inadequate waste interception persist. A synergistic approach combining technology, regulation, and community participation is essential to meet SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and ensure coastal sustainability.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper 3 – Conservation, Environmental Pollution, Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.
  • GS Paper 2 – Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors.

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions

  • 2020: “Marine pollution has become a serious global problem. Discuss the impact of plastic waste on marine ecosystems and suggest measures to curb it.” (GS 3)
  • 2019: “How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?” (Indirect relevance – environmental governance)
  • 2015: “What are microplastics and why are they considered a serious environmental hazard?” (GS 3)

Introduction

Floods are among the most frequent and devastating natural disasters, especially in rapidly urbanising countries like India. According to Moody’s 2024 report, over 600 million people in India are at risk of inland or coastal flooding. A 2024 study published in Nature Cities highlights that India has the world’s highest number of slum dwellers living in flood-prone areas, primarily concentrated in the Ganga delta. These clusters are highly vulnerable due to socio-economic fragility, inadequate infrastructure, and flawed urban planning.

Body

  1. Magnitude and Patterns of Vulnerability:
  • Over 158 million people in India reside in informal settlements located in floodplains, surpassing even national populations like Russia.
  • About 33% of slum clusters in the Global South — comprising 445 million people — are located in already flood-exposed areas.
  • In India, 40% of slum dwellers are found in urban/suburban flood-prone zones, such as Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Bengaluru.
  1. Key Reasons for Floodplain Settlements:
  • Affordability and accessibility: Floodplains offer cheap land in cities where housing costs are unaffordable for migrant workers.
  • Employment proximity: Urban floodplains are often close to commercial centres and industries, attracting informal workers.
  • Lack of institutional safeguards: Unlike developed nations that have flood insurance or protective infrastructure, India lacks equitable protection mechanisms for the urban poor.
  1. Consequences:
  • Economic loss: Frequent flooding leads to loss of shelter, livelihood, and public health crises (waterborne diseases).
  • Social vulnerability: These communities often lack legal tenure, basic sanitation, and health facilities.
  • Environmental degradation: Encroachments into natural floodplains disrupt natural water flow, exacerbating disaster intensity.
  1. Global Comparison:
  • In developed regions (e.g., Europe), subsidised flood insurance and levy systems allow even high-risk floodplain areas to be inhabited safely.
  • In the Global South, the poorest communities are pushed into high-risk areas without such protections.

Way Forward

  • Slum Upgradation and Affordable Housing: Strengthen schemes like PM Awas Yojana – Urban and ensure relocation with dignity for flood-affected families.
  • Flood Zoning and Early Warning Systems: Implement scientific urban planning using machine learning and satellite mapping for risk assessment and flood zoning.
  • Decentralised Urban Infrastructure: Invest in stormwater drains, solid waste management, and community-based sanitation to reduce flood impact.
  • Legal and Institutional Reforms: Strengthen Municipal Acts and empower Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) for risk-informed development.
  • Participatory Planning: Promote community collaboration for resilient urban design, with a focus on SDG Goals 1, 11, and 13.

Conclusion

India’s slum clusters in flood-prone zones reflect the deep nexus between poverty, urbanisation, and climate vulnerability. Addressing this requires targeted policy reforms, community participation, and technology-enabled planning. With the 2030 SDG deadline approaching, India must adopt equitable, data-driven urban resilience strategies to protect its most vulnerable citizens and secure its sustainable urban future.

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper I – Indian Society
    • Urbanisation – problems and remedies
  • GS Paper III – Disaster Management
    • Disaster risk reduction, mitigation, and resilience
  • GS Paper II – Governance
    • Issues relating to poverty and developmental challenges

Previous Year UPSC Mains Questions:

  • 2022 (GS I): Why is India considered a subcontinent? Elaborate on how this geographical identity shapes urban vulnerabilities.
  • 2020 (GS III): Disaster preparedness is the first step in disaster management. Explain how hazard zonation mapping will help disaster mitigation.
  • 2016 (GS I): Discuss the problems and strategies of urban waste management in India.
  • 2015 (GS I): Mumbai, Delhi and Bengaluru are facing repeated urban flooding. Discuss the root causes and suggest long-term solutions.

Sources:

  • Nature Cities, July 2024
  • Moody’s Global Climate Risk Report, 2024
  • Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, PMAY-U Dashboard, 2024
  • NITI Aayog’s Report on Urban Vulnerability, 2023
  • ISRO Bhuvan Flood Risk Mapping Portal
  • Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS), 2024 Study

Introduction:

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are sudden, high-magnitude floods caused by the breach of glacial lakes, often dammed by loose moraine or ice. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), home to over 28,000 glacial lakes, is increasingly vulnerable to GLOFs due to accelerated glacial melting, induced by climate change. The South Lhonak GLOF in Sikkim (2023) and the Kedarnath disaster (2013) exemplify the growing threat to life, infrastructure, and ecology.

Body:

  1. Nature and Scale of GLOF Risk in India:
  • According to National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), 7,500 glacial lakes are located in India, mostly above 4,500m altitude, making access and monitoring difficult.
  • Two major types of glacial lakes:
  • Supraglacial lakes: Meltwater accumulations on glaciers.
  • Moraine-dammed lakes: Formed at glacier snouts, highly prone to collapse due to weak natural dams.
  • Triggers include ice/rock avalanches, excessive meltwater pressure, earthquakes, and extreme rainfall.
  1. Impacts of GLOF Events:
  • Infrastructure destruction: The South Lhonak GLOF destroyed the Chungthang hydroelectric project ($2 billion, 1250 MW).
  • Riverbed elevation: Post-GLOF sedimentation raised the Teesta riverbed, reducing flood-carrying capacity.
  • Loss of biodiversity, displacement, and long-term ecological degradation.
  1. India’s Preparedness and Mitigation Strategies:
  2. Institutional Efforts – NDMA and CoDRR:
  • The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has shifted from reactive relief to proactive risk mitigation, via its Committee on Disaster Risk Reduction (CoDRR).
  • Initiated India’s first national GLOF mitigation programme worth $20 million, targeting 195 at-risk lakes (initially 56), categorized into four risk levels.
  1. Multi-dimensional Mitigation Programme:
  • Hazard assessment of each lake using bathymetry and slope stability surveys.
  • Installation of Automated Weather and Water Stations (AWWS) and Early Warning Systems (EWS).
  • Water drawdown channels, retention structures, and community engagement.
  • Use of SAR interferometry to detect micro-slope instabilities – a breakthrough in satellite-based remote sensing.
  1. Scientific Expeditions:
  • Joint expeditions across J&K, Ladakh, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh for lake monitoring.
  • Usage of UAVs, Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), and real-time camera surveillance.
  • Involvement of ITBP for manual early warning in remote areas.

Way Forward:

  • Transboundary cooperation: Develop real-time GLOF early warning protocols with China and Nepal for shared river basins.
  • Expand monitoring infrastructure: Deploy more AWWS and EWS, especially in glacial valleys lacking baseline data.
  • Climate-resilient infrastructure: Redesign bridges, hydropower projects, and habitations with flood buffers.
  • Promote indigenous innovation: Encourage Indian tech start-ups and research institutes in cryosphere and disaster-tech.
  • Community engagement: Mobilize local knowledge and religious sensitivities, as seen in Sikkim expeditions.

Conclusion:

With climate change intensifying glacial melt, GLOFs pose an existential threat to Himalayan ecosystems and downstream populations. India’s recent shift toward a multi-agency, tech-enabled, and community-centric GLOF mitigation strategy is a welcome step. However, continuous investment, cross-border coordination, and scientific innovation are essential to secure the fragile Himalayan region against future disasters.

Link to Previous Year UPSC Questions:

  • GS Paper III (2020): “Disaster preparedness is the first step in disaster management.” Discuss in the context of urban floods.
  • Indian subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples.”
  • GS Paper III (2023): “Discuss the challenges of glacial retreat in the Indian Himalayas and the steps taken by the Government.”

Link to UPSC GS Mains Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III:
    • Disaster and disaster management.
    • Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
    • Science and Technology – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.

Sources:

  • National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), ISRO
  • National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), 2024 Report
  • Central Water Commission (CWC), 2023 Findings
  • Ministry of Earth Sciences, Cryosphere Programme Brief
  • The Hindu, July 2025 Explainer by Safi Ahsan Rizvi
  • IPCC AR6 Report on Himalayan Glacial Retreat

Introduction

The Great Nicobar Infrastructure Project (GNIP), a ₹72,000-crore initiative by the Indian government, aims to transform Great Nicobar Island (GNI) through a transshipment port, international airport, township, and power infrastructure. While it holds economic and strategic value, experts have raised serious concerns regarding environmental sustainability and seismic vulnerability, especially considering the region’s history of tsunamis and mega-earthquakes, such as the catastrophic 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.

Body

Environmental and Geophysical Concerns

  1. Seismic Vulnerability:
    • The EIA Report downplays the probability of a mega-earthquake, citing a return period of 420–750 years for magnitude ≥9 events.
    • However, the IIT-Kanpur study (2019) revealed seven tsunami events in the past 8,000 years and noted a sediment gap of 2,000 years, implying uncertainty in earthquake prediction.
    • Experts such as Prof. Javed Malik and C.P. Rajendran caution that site-specific studies are essential due to the complex rupture patterns of the Andaman-Sumatra fault and local fault lines within GNI.
  2. Biodiversity and Tribal Displacement:
    • GNIP is expected to result in the felling of over 5 lakh trees and impact fragile coastal ecosystems.
    • The project poses threats to endemic species and indigenous tribes, such as the Shompen, prompting the National Green Tribunal (NGT) to seek a review of environmental clearances.
  3. Data and Methodological Limitations:
    • The EIA study, conducted by a private firm, fails to incorporate the full implications of seismic history or site-specific geological analyses.
    • Ministry of Earth Sciences officials acknowledge that no dedicated site studies were conducted for earthquake risk, and that execution proceeds on a “calculated risk”

Strategic and Economic Significance of GNIP

  • Envisioned as a strategic maritime node, the transshipment port at GNI is designed to reduce dependency on foreign ports like Singapore and Colombo.
  • The project is also central to India’s Act East Policy and Blue Economy framework, enhancing trade connectivity and naval presence in the Indo-Pacific.

Way Forward

  • Conduct Site-Specific Seismic Risk Assessments:
    Involve premier geoscience institutions like IITs, NIAS, and NCS to conduct microzonation and geodynamic mapping.
  • Integrate Earthquake-Resilient Infrastructure Codes:
    All infrastructure must adhere to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) codes and IS 1893:2016 (Earthquake Resistant Design) provisions.
  • Adopt Environmental Safeguards and Community Consent:
    Conduct comprehensive biodiversity mapping, free prior informed consent (FPIC) with tribal communities, and enforce compensatory afforestation.
  • Establish Early Warning Systems and Disaster Preparedness Plans:
    Strengthen tsunami monitoring systems, community drills, and build resilient coastal evacuation infrastructure.

Conclusion

The GNIP exemplifies the development-versus-sustainability dilemma in ecologically and geologically sensitive regions. While national infrastructure is vital, it must not come at the cost of long-term disaster vulnerability, biodiversity loss, and marginalization of indigenous communities. A balanced approach rooted in scientific evidence, environmental justice, and risk mitigation is essential to making the project resilient and sustainable.

Linked Syllabus

  • GS Paper III – Disaster Management and Environment
    • Disaster and disaster management
    • Conservation, environmental impact assessment
    • Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports
    • Environmental degradation and sustainable development

Previous Year Questions Linkage

  • UPSC Mains 2023 (GS III): “How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to rising disaster vulnerabilities? What steps can be taken to enhance their disaster preparedness?”
  • UPSC Mains 2021 (GS III): “Describe the benefits of multi-hazard early warning systems in disaster-prone areas of India.”
  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS III): “Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an effective tool to integrate environmental concerns in developmental projects. Discuss.”

Sources:

  • EIA Report on GNIP (2024), Vimta Labs
  • IIT-Kanpur Study on Tsunami History (2019)
  • World Bank Global Seismic Risk Reports (2023)
  • Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC)
  • National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS)
  • The Hindu (July 2025 Report

Introduction:

Industrial accidents in India remain a grim reminder of regulatory lapses and inadequate safety protocols. The Telangana pharmaceutical unit explosion on June 30, 2025, which claimed 39 lives, is one such catastrophic incident. It raises crucial concerns around industrial safety, environmental pollution, and institutional accountability, especially in the pharmaceutical sector — a vital contributor to India’s economy.

Body:

  1. What Happened:
  • At Sigachi Industries, a blast flattened a three-storeyed building.
  • Preliminary analysis by scientists suggests a dust explosion involving microcrystalline cellulose, not a chemical reactor failure.
  1. Key Concerns Exposed:
  • Regulatory Failure:
    • No environmental safety display boards were available at the site — a violation of norms set by State and Central Pollution Control Boards.
    • Rescue teams lacked information about hazardous materials, delaying and complicating response.
  • Recurring Industrial Accidents:
    • Similar fatal incidents occurred in SB Organics (2024), Anakapalli (2024), and Parawada (2025) — reflecting systemic neglect.
  • Weak Environmental Governance:
    • Rapid urbanisation near industrial clusters like Pashamylaram worsens exposure risks.
    • Toxic chemical discharge into ground and water bodies — notably Musi River, ranked 22nd globally for pharmaceutical pollution.
  • Lack of Worker Safety & Zoning Norms:
    • Worker colonies often situated dangerously close to hazardous zones due to lack of public transport and poor housing policies.
  1. Implications for the Pharma Sector:
  • India is the world’s third-largest pharmaceutical producer by volume, with Telangana contributing 33% of output.
  • Reputational damage and global trust erosion can severely impact exports, particularly to regulated markets like the U.S. FDA.
  • Literature like “The Truth Pill” and “Bottle of Lies” documents such systemic failures in Indian pharma manufacturing.

Way Forward:

  • National Pharma Safety Code: Mandatory safety audits, fire-risk assessments, and public safety disclosures for all pharmaceutical units.
  • Zoning and Urban Planning Reforms: Prevent industrial-residential overlap through stricter buffer zones.
  • Revamped Disaster Protocols: Mandate real-time hazard data sharing between industries and local disaster management authorities.
  • Strengthening Environmental Compliance:
    • Upgrade wastewater treatment in pharma clusters.
    • Penalise units contributing to antimicrobial resistance via effluent discharge.
  • Third-Party Certification: Ensure independent inspections, especially for small and medium enterprises (SMEs).

Conclusion:

The Telangana blast is not just an isolated incident but a warning against industrial complacency. In a globally competitive pharma landscape, safety, transparency, and environmental sustainability must become the cornerstones of India’s growth narrative. A robust regulatory regime, coupled with industry accountability and community engagement, is essential to safeguard both economic interests and human lives.

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • GS III (2020): “Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain with suitable examples.”
  • GS III (2022): “Despite the adverse environmental impact, coal is likely to remain the mainstay of India’s energy needs for the foreseeable future. Discuss.”
  • GS III (2018): “What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded solid waste which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?”

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper III:
    • Disaster Management
    • Industrial Growth
    • Environmental Pollution & Degradation
    • Government Policies and Interventions

Sources:

  • CSIR-IICT Report (2025)
  • Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Norms
  • Invest India (2025) – Pharma Sector Overview
  • The Hindu (July 2025) – Telangana Blast Coverage
  • United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) – Industrial Safety Guidelines

Introduction

Maritime safety is governed by an intricate network of international conventions and national regulations, administered through bodies like the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Two recent shipping accidents—the fire aboard MV Wan Hai 503 (June 2025) and the sinking of MSC ELSA 3 (May 2025) off the Kerala coast—have spotlighted the gaps and challenges in shipping regulation, ecological protection, and liability frameworks.

Body

  1. Role of the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
  • The IMO, a specialized UN agency, is the global regulatory body for merchant shipping.
  • It issues binding conventions on pollution prevention, safety of life at sea, wreck removal, and liability frameworks, ratified by member countries like India.
  • IMO’s conventions become enforceable via national laws, such as those implemented by India’s Directorate General of Shipping.
  1. Key Conventions Governing Shipping Accidents
  • SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea): Introduced after the Titanic disaster, it mandates safety protocols including lifeboat capacity, ship design, and emergency response systems.
  • MARPOL (Marine Pollution): Enforces standards on oil spills, garbage disposal, and emissions. Upholds the “polluter pays” principle.
  • Nairobi Convention (2007): Mandates that ship owners are responsible for salvaging wrecks within the 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
  • Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS) Convention (not yet ratified by India): Would provide compensation for environmental and health damages due to toxic cargo like calcium carbide.
  1. Legal and Commercial Responsibilities
  • Ship Owners: Legally liable for environmental damage and cargo loss under international norms.
  • Bill of Lading: A legal contract between shipper and carrier; determines who is compensated in case of cargo damage or loss.
  • Protection and Indemnity (P&I) Clubs: Insurance consortia that cover claims related to environmental damage, life loss, and cargo claims.
  1. Flags of Convenience and Regulatory Gaps
  • Many ships are registered in FOC (Flags of Convenience) countries like Liberia or Marshall Islands to avoid strict scrutiny.
  • These lax jurisdictions pose challenges for accountability, despite being IMO members.

Way Forward

  • India should ratify the HNS Convention, given rising hazardous maritime cargo near its coasts.
  • Enhance coastal surveillance and shipping regulation, especially around ecologically sensitive zones.
  • Develop a national-level Maritime Disaster Response Framework integrating DG Shipping, Coast Guard, and environmental agencies.
  • Push IMO reforms to tighten compliance by FOC countries and ensure strict enforcement of liability norms.

Conclusion

The incidents off Kerala’s coast highlight the multifaceted risks of modern maritime commerce—from fire and capsizing to hazardous cargo and oil spills. While conventions like SOLAS, MARPOL, and mechanisms under the IMO provide a strong framework, national enforcement, insurance mechanisms, and legal readiness must evolve rapidly. As global shipping intensifies, India must shore up its maritime regulatory and environmental preparedness to safeguard both trade and ecology.

Syllabus Linkage:

  • GS Paper II – Important international institutions, agencies and fora – their structure and mandate
  • GS Paper III – Disaster and environmental management; Security challenges and maritime safety

PYQ Linkages:

  • Q. Discuss the challenges and significance of coastal security in India. (GS III – UPSC 2014)
  • Q. What are the key provisions of the IMO and their relevance for India’s maritime trade and security? (GS II – Model-based)

Introduction

The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) 2025 report reveals that India increased its nuclear warhead count to 180 in January 2025 from 172 a year ago, amid rising regional and global tensions. Alongside, India has pursued modernization of its delivery systems, including canisterised missiles potentially capable of carrying multiple warheads. This nuclear posture is set against a backdrop of deteriorating global arms control and heightened conflict risks in South Asia.

Body

  1. India’s Expanding Nuclear Posture
  • According to SIPRI (2025), India holds 180 nuclear warheads, up from 172 in 2024.
  • India is developing canisterised nuclear-capable missiles, which allow for faster deployment, longer shelf-life, and possible Multiple Independently targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) capability.
  • India remains outside formal nuclear alliances (unlike NATO), maintaining its credible minimum deterrence and No First Use (NFU) doctrine, though some analysts argue its posture is becoming more flexible.
  1. Regional and Strategic Implications
  • Pakistan’s arsenal remains at 170 warheads but is also expanding, raising the risk of an arms race in South Asia.
  • Tensions in early 2025 reportedly involved strikes on nuclear-related infrastructure, raising the specter of a nuclear crisis (SIPRI, Matt Korda).
  • China has raised its inventory to 600 warheads in 2025, up from 500 in 2024, with rapid developments in strategic delivery platforms.
  1. Fragile Global Disarmament Regime
  • The New START treaty (US-Russia) is set to expire in February 2026, with no successor yet negotiated.
  • Arms control institutions such as the Conference on Disarmament and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) face declining trust and cooperation.
  • India, not being an NPT signatory, has maintained its stance of non-discriminatory universal disarmament under UN frameworks.

Way Forward

  1. Reaffirm NFU Doctrine: India must publicly reinforce its No First Use and credible minimum deterrence policies to reduce regional misperceptions.
  2. Promote Strategic Stability Dialogues: Reinitiate bilateral confidence-building measures (CBMs) with Pakistan and track-II dialogues with China on nuclear risk reduction.
  3. Champion Global Disarmament: Lead advocacy for universal, time-bound disarmament frameworks at the United Nations and Conference on Disarmament.
  4. Domestic Oversight & Transparency: Establish an independent nuclear strategy advisory board to ensure alignment with national security and ethical commitments.

Conclusion

While India’s nuclear modernization reflects legitimate security concerns, it must walk a fine line between strategic deterrence and global nuclear responsibility. In a rapidly militarizing world order, India has an opportunity to not just deter aggression but also lead the moral and diplomatic push toward a stable, restrained, and multipolar nuclear order.

Link with Previous UPSC Mains Questions:

  • UPSC Mains 2018 (GS-III): How has the growing nuclear arsenal of India and China affected the strategic stability in South Asia?
  • UPSC Mains 2013 (GS-III): Discuss the implications of India’s nuclear doctrine in the context of the changing geopolitical landscape.

Introduction

Urban crowd management has emerged as a key governance and public safety challenge, particularly in the backdrop of increasing urban events and mass gatherings. The tragic stampede during the RCB victory parade on June 4, 2025, in Bengaluru, which claimed 11 lives and injured dozens, underscores the urgent need for proactive planning, inter-agency coordination, and real-time crowd control mechanisms in Indian cities.

Body

  1. Key Issues Highlighted by the Bengaluru Incident
  1. Lack of Pre-event Risk Assessment
    Despite the expected large turnout, there was no evidence of a formal crowd risk evaluation or capacity control mechanisms in CBD areas like M. Chinnaswamy Stadium and Vidhana Soudha.
  2. Absence of Emergency Protocols
    Eyewitness reports and journalist accounts indicated delayed ambulance access, inadequate first responders, and lack of emergency evacuation plans.
  3. Over-centralization of Gathering Points
    The event funneled lakhs of fans into limited urban spaces, creating bottlenecks and panic zones, with no designated dispersal areas.
  4. Poor Inter-agency Coordination
    According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) Guidelines on Crowd Management (2014), event organizers must coordinate with city police, transport, fire, and health departments. In Bengaluru, these SOPs appear to have been bypassed or underutilized.
  1. Institutional and Technological Gaps
  • Insufficient Use of Technology: The Smart City Command & Control Centres were not activated for crowd surveillance, which could have helped detect choke points and crowd density thresholds.
  • Data Deficiency: India lacks a national crowd database to identify high-risk events or locations.
  • Legal and Regulatory Vacuum: While states like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have specific regulations post-temple stampedes, Karnataka lacks comprehensive Mass Gathering Safety Regulations.

Way Forward

  1. Mandatory Crowd Risk Assessments: All events expecting over 10,000 participants must submit crowd modeling simulations using AI/ML tools for approval by civic bodies.
  2. City-wide Emergency Protocols: Develop city-level Mass Gathering Safety Plans with fixed roles for departments, rapid response teams, and real-time coordination via Smart City infrastructure.
  3. Legal Framework: States should enact binding rules under the Disaster Management Act, 2005 for event risk categorization and liability fixing for organizers.
  4. Public Awareness: Use media and social networks to communicate crowd safety norms and real-time alerts.
  5. Use of Drones & Sensors: Surveillance drones and heat-mapping can assist police in monitoring crowd behavior dynamically.

Conclusion

The RCB victory parade disaster serves as a stark reminder that celebrations without safety become catastrophes. In India’s rapidly urbanizing and emotionally charged public sphere, institutionalizing crowd management is not merely about security but about safeguarding lives and upholding public trust. Urgent reforms rooted in technology, inter-agency coordination, and accountability are essential to prevent such tragedies from recurring.

Syllabus Linkage

  • GS Paper II: Government policies and issues arising out of their implementation
  • GS Paper III: Disaster Management; Urban Infrastructure and Safety

 Relevant PYQs

  • GS III (2023): “Discuss the challenges of urban resilience in the context of climate change. Suggest measures to make Indian cities more sustainable.”
  • GS II (2019): “The role of urban local bodies in disaster management.”
  • GS III (2016): “Highlight the importance of e-governance in disaster risk reduction.”

 

Introduction:

India is witnessing an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves and torrential rainfall. To enhance predictive accuracy and early warning systems, India is increasingly adopting Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) alongside traditional numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. Initiatives like Mission Mausam (2024) mark a paradigm shift toward data-driven meteorological modelling.

Body:

  1. Advantages of AI in Weather Forecasting:
  • Data-Driven Prediction: AI learns patterns from large historical datasets, enabling detection of complex, non-linear relationships beyond physical equations.
  • High Efficiency: AI models require less computational power than traditional physics-based models, yet can provide faster results.
  • Extreme Weather Forecasting: AI is being explored to improve nowcasting of cyclones, heatwaves, and cloudbursts—events which are localised and fast-developing.
  1. Government Initiatives:
  • Mission Mausam (2024): ₹2,000 crore allocation for AI-based weather modelling.
  • AI/ML Centres: Established by the Ministry of Earth Sciences to improve short-range rain forecasts and create urban meteorological datasets.
  • Academic Collaborations: Institutes like IIT Delhi and IIIT-Delhi have developed AI models outperforming traditional models in long-term monsoon predictions.
  1. Challenges:
  • Data Limitations: Despite data improvements, issues of standardisation, real-time access, and historical completeness persist.
  • Human Resource Gaps: There’s a dearth of interdisciplinary experts proficient in both AI and climate science.
  • Interpretability Crisis: Unlike physics-based models, AI functions as a “black box,” making it hard for forecasters and policymakers to trust or explain predictions.
  • Infrastructure Constraints: High-end computing infrastructure, like GPU-based systems, is still limited in accessibility.

Way Forward:

  • Hybrid Modelling Approach: Integrating AI with traditional physics-based models can enhance accuracy and interpretability.
  • Capacity Building: Establish interdisciplinary institutions focused on AI-climate science integration, with dedicated training for data scientists and meteorologists.
  • Data Ecosystem Development: Invest in expanding sensor networks and ensuring real-time, standardised, open-access datasets.
  • Ethical and Transparent AI: Develop explainable AI models for trustworthy forecasts, especially in public risk communication.

Conclusion:

AI and ML represent a transformative leap in India’s climate resilience strategy, particularly for predicting extreme weather. However, their true potential can be unlocked only through integrated approaches that address infrastructural, scientific, and human capital challenges. With strategic collaboration and investment, India can emerge as a global leader in next-generation climate modelling.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS Paper-3: Science and Technology – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
  • Disaster Management – Disaster and disaster management (Heatwaves, cloudbursts, extreme rainfall events).

Previous Year Questions Linked:

  • “How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are the striking changes in agriculture triggered off by science-based technologies?” (UPSC 2020)
  • “Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach.” (UPSC 2020)
  • “What is India’s plan to address the issue of climate change? How far has it been successful?” (UPSC 2022)

 

Introduction

India is increasingly experiencing extreme weather events, especially heatwaves. The year 2025 witnessed the first severe heatwave 20 days earlier than 2024, signalling a dangerous trend linked to climate change. The World Meteorological Organization reported 2024 as the warmest year on record, with average global temperatures rising 1.55°C above pre-industrial levels. In this context, heatwaves are no longer seasonal anomalies but chronic climate threats that demand urgent multi-dimensional responses.

Body

  1. Rising Frequency and Impact of Heatwaves
  • The number and intensity of heatwaves in India have significantly increased in the last two decades.
  • Heat stress affects vital organs and can lead to death. In 2023, India reportedly lost 6% of work hours due to heat stress.
  • Sectors like agriculture and construction, with over 75% heat-exposed workforce, are the most vulnerable.
  • Women, elderly, migrants, and the poor are disproportionately impacted — making heatwaves a climate justice and equity issue.
  1. Socio-Economic and Environmental Disruptions
  • Heatwaves reduce labour productivity, trigger power cuts, and lower agricultural yield and livestock survival, leading to income loss and food insecurity.
  • Increased electricity demand worsens power availability, directly impacting industrial production and urban life.
  • Socio-cultural norms exacerbate impacts on women, especially in unventilated kitchens or informal outdoor workspaces.
  1. Existing Mitigation Frameworks: Heat Action Plans (HAPs)
  • Since Ahmedabad’s 2013 pioneering HAP, over 23 States and 140 cities have adopted similar plans.
  • Core components: early warnings, public awareness, health system preparedness, urban greening, and cool roofing.
  • However, challenges remain:
    • Lack of data-driven vulnerability assessments.
    • Inadequate focus on humidity, night-time temperatures, and social-geographical variances.
    • Partial implementation, especially in rural and peri-urban areas.

Way Forward: Towards a People-Centric, Resilient Approach

  1. Upgrade and Localise HAPs:
    • Incorporate humidity and nighttime temperatures.
    • Base interventions on localised vulnerability mapping and real-time thermal data.
  2. Institutional Coordination and Early Activation:
    • Start HAP execution by March with clear accountability.
    • Engage municipal bodies, health institutions, NGOs, and community leaders.
  3. Enhance Infrastructure and Shelter Access:
    • Expand ‘summer shelters’ akin to winter ones.
    • Promote cool roof policies and thermally efficient building materials.
  4. Policy Innovations and Social Security:
    • Provide income insurance for lost workdays in the informal sector.
    • Enable staggered work hours, hydration stations, and ORS distribution.
  5. Improve Data and Surveillance:
    • Invest in heat mortality surveillance and predictive thermal comfort systems.
    • Use technology for geo-tagged alerts and micro-climatic analysis.

Conclusion

Heatwaves are not isolated natural calamities but systemic disruptors, magnifying socio-economic inequities and governance deficits. Their increasing frequency is a grim reminder that climate adaptation and equity must converge. As India heads into warmer decades, integrated, people-centric, and context-specific heat adaptation is no longer optional but an urgent public mandate. Recognising heatwaves as a developmental challenge, not just a meteorological one, will define India’s resilience in the climate age.

Linkage with UPSC Syllabus & Previous Year Questions

Syllabus Mapping (GS Paper 3):

  • Environmental pollution and degradation.
  • Disaster and disaster management.
  • Climate change and its impact.
  • Inclusive development and associated issues.

Relevant PYQs:

  • UPSC CSE Mains 2023 (GS3): “Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain how hazard zonation mapping will help in disaster mitigation in the case of landslides.”
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2022 (GS3): “Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available mitigation measures for it?”
  • UPSC CSE Mains 2021 (GS3): “Describe the various causes and effects of heatwaves in India. Mention the steps taken by the government to deal with it.”

Introduction:

Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) recently witnessed devastating cloudbursts, flash floods, and landslides, particularly in Ramban and Reasi districts, leading to loss of lives, infrastructure damage, and disruption of essential services. These events highlight the vulnerability of the Himalayan region to extreme weather events, exacerbated by climate change. The disaster underscores the need for robust preparedness, efficient response mechanisms, and long-term mitigation strategies.

Body:

  1. Impact of the Disaster:
  • Human and Livestock Casualties: At least five deaths reported, including children, along with 40 cattle lost due to lightning.
  • Infrastructure Damage: National Highway blocked, vehicles buried, and houses collapsed due to landslides.
  • Economic Losses: Disruption of travel, damage to crops, and threat to livelihoods, especially in rural areas.
  1. Disaster Response & Preparedness:
  • Immediate Rescue Efforts: Over 100 people rescued by local administration and police.
  • Government Measures:
    • Chief Minister’s review of relief and restoration plans.
    • MP’s intervention for financial aid and coordination with district authorities.
    • Closure of schools and advisories against non-essential travel.
  • Gaps in Preparedness:
    • Lack of real-time early warning systems for cloudbursts.
    • Slow official confirmation of casualties, indicating bureaucratic delays.
    • Limited community awareness on disaster resilience.
  1. Need for Long-Term Mitigation:
  • Strengthening Early Warning Systems: IMD’s alerts must be disseminated faster via mobile networks.
  • Infrastructure Resilience: Reinforcing highways, slopes, and settlements in landslide-prone zones.
  • Climate Adaptation Policies: Integrating disaster risk reduction (DRR) in urban and rural planning.
  • Community Participation: Training locals in first response and evacuation procedures.

Way Forward:

  • Adopt a Multi-Agency Approach: Enhance coordination between NDMA, IMD, and local bodies.
  • Invest in Technology: Use satellite monitoring and AI for landslide prediction.
  • Eco-Sensitive Development: Enforce strict regulations on construction in fragile ecosystems.
  • Public Awareness Campaigns: Educate communities on disaster preparedness.

Conclusion:

The recent calamities in J&K expose systemic gaps in disaster management. While rescue efforts were commendable, long-term resilience requires proactive policies, technological integration, and community empowerment. Sustainable development and climate adaptation must be prioritized to mitigate future risks.

Syllabus Link:

  • GS-III: Disaster and Disaster Management (Previous Year Questions: 2021 – “Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India.”; 2019 – “Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impacts.”)
  • GS-I: Geographical phenomena (cloudbursts, landslides)
  • GS-II: Governance (Role of administration in disaster response)

 

Introduction:

On May 29, 2025, a stampede at Bengaluru’s M. Chinnaswamy Stadium during the felicitation ceremony of the IPL-winning RCB team led to the tragic death of 11 people and left over 50 injured. What began as a moment of public joy quickly spiraled into chaos, exposing systemic failures in urban event governance, crowd control, and public communication—areas vital for disaster risk reduction in India’s rapidly urbanizing landscape.

Body:

  1. Causes of the Tragedy:
  1. Poor Communication and Contradictory Messaging:
    • Confusion over open-bus parade and entry permissions (invitation vs public access) created panic.
    • Inconsistent announcements by RCB and the police added to the chaos.
  2. Inadequate Crowd Management:
    • Staffing shortfalls in both police and KSCA personnel.
    • Lack of entry-exit flow regulation at a high-capacity venue.
  3. Failure in Anticipatory Governance:
    • Karnataka CM acknowledged crowd was “beyond expectations” – yet no preventive protocols (like barricades, emergency lanes, crowd dispersal plans) were activated.
  4. Absence of Inter-Agency Coordination:
    • Lack of synergy between police, cricket association, and urban municipal authorities led to operational lapses.
  1. Broader Implications:
  • Erosion of Public Trust: Citizens lose faith in authorities’ capacity to manage large-scale events.
  • Legal and Institutional Accountability: High-level suspensions indicate structural blame but don’t guarantee systemic change.
  • Undermining Sports Ethics: Fan safety, the bedrock of sporting commerce, remains marginalized.

Way Forward:

  1. National Guidelines for Crowd Management:
    • Implement NDMA’s Guidelines on Mass Gathering Events (2014) rigorously, with mandatory safety audits.
  2. Integrated Command and Control Centers (ICCCs):
    • Use smart-city ICCCs for real-time surveillance and emergency communication.
  3. Advance Public Information Strategy:
    • Single-window verified announcements through official mobile apps, SMS alerts, and geo-fenced advisories.
  4. Mandatory Event Management SOPs:
    • All events drawing more than 10,000 people should have pre-approved Standard Operating Procedures, mock drills, and first-responder readiness.
  5. Legal Accountability Framework:
    • Fast-track judicial inquiries must recommend institutional reforms, not just suspensions.

Conclusion:

This tragedy is a stark reminder that urban governance must be proactive, people-centric, and communication-driven. India’s soft power, including sporting success, should not come at the cost of public safety. Ensuring robust inter-agency coordination, technology integration, and citizen trust must become non-negotiable components of India’s urban event planning infrastructure.

Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper II: Government Policies and Interventions, Governance Issues, Role of Civil Services in a Democracy
  • GS Paper III: Disaster and Disaster Management (crowd management during mass events), Technology in Disaster Mitigation

Previous Year Questions Linkage:

  • UPSC GS III 2023: Disaster preparedness is the first step in disaster mitigation. Explain with examples.
  • UPSC GS II 2018: E-governance in the public service delivery has improved transparency, accountability and citizen interface. Discuss.
  • UPSC GS III 2019: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has failed to fulfil its mandate effectively. Critically examine.

Introduction:

India, one of the most biodiverse and populous nations, is at the heart of the global environmental crisis. Despite constitutional provisions (Article 48A and 51A(g)) and international commitments such as the Paris Agreement (2015), the country faces escalating challenges from carbon emissions, biodiversity loss, and pollution. The last decade has seen worsening ecological indicators, despite strides in policy and awareness.

Body:

  1. Current Environmental Crises in India:
  1. Carbon Emissions:
    • India’s CO₂ emissions rose from 2.33 billion tonnes (2015) to 3.12 billion tonnes (2024) — a 34% increase.
    • Coal still accounts for nearly 70% of electricity generation (CEA, 2023).
  2. Biodiversity Loss:
    • India ranks among the 17 megadiverse nations, yet faces habitat destruction from mining, infrastructure, and monoculture.
    • Loss of Western Ghats, northeast forests, and wetlands like East Kolkata Wetlands is accelerating.
  3. Pollution:
    • India generates 62 million tonnes of waste annually, with only 20% scientifically processed (MoHUA, 2023).
    • Cities like Delhi consistently top global pollution charts (IQAir 2023).
    • Rivers like Ganga and Yamuna are contaminated with untreated sewage and industrial effluents.
  1. Root Causes of Environmental Crisis:
  • Fossil Fuel Dependence: Slow transition to renewables.
  • Deforestation & Land-Use Change: Rapid urban expansion and extractive projects.
  • Agricultural Intensification: Overuse of pesticides, nitrate pollution, monoculture.
  • Unregulated Urbanisation: Poor waste management, lack of sustainable planning.
  • Global Industrial Practices: Externalisation of environmental damage by Global North.

III. India’s Position:

  • Per Capita Emission: ~1.9 tonnes vs. 14.7 tonnes in the U.S. (World Bank 2023).
  • Vulnerability: India ranks 7th in the Global Climate Risk Index 2023.
  • Climate disasters — heatwaves, erratic monsoons, and urban flooding — disproportionately affect the poor.

Way Forward:

  1. Global Accountability:
    • Developed nations must fulfill climate finance obligations ($100 billion/year).
    • Enforce carbon taxation and green trade protocols for MNCs.
  2. National Reforms:
    • Fast-track renewable energy deployment to meet 500 GW target by 2030.
    • Promote ecological agriculture and community-led afforestation (e.g., Miyawaki forests).
  3. Urban Sustainability:
    • Strengthen solid waste management under Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0.
    • Integrate climate-resilient infrastructure into AMRUT and Smart Cities Mission.
  4. Legal and Market Tools:
    • Introduce green rating protocols for corporations.
    • Penalize entities flouting environmental compliance under Environment Protection Act, 1986.

Conclusion:

India’s environmental crisis reflects both domestic developmental trade-offs and global ecological injustice. The path forward lies in balancing growth with ecological integrity, ensuring climate justice, and empowering communities as stakeholders in sustainability. By aligning policy with low-carbon, inclusive development, India can lead the way in a just ecological transition.

UPSC Syllabus Mapping:

  • GS Paper III – Environment: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
  • GS Paper III – Disaster Management: Vulnerability and mitigation strategies.
  • GS Paper II – International Relations: Global climate negotiations and justice.

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS III (2022): “Discuss the causes and consequences of climate change.”
  • GS III (2020): “Environmental degradation is a major challenge in India. Discuss with examples.”
  • GS III (2018): “How far do India’s environmental regulations match global standards?”
 

Introduction

The Northeastern region of India, despite its ecological richness, remains highly vulnerable to climate-induced disasters. In June 2025 alone, torrential rainfall and flash floods have affected over 3.6 lakh people in Assam, left 1,500 tourists stranded in Sikkim, and caused extensive landslides in Mizoram. According to The Hindu (June 2, 2025), the rain-related death toll since May 28 stands at 34, with infrastructure, homes, and transport networks severely disrupted.

Body

1. Reasons for Recurring Disasters in Northeast

    • Topographical Fragility: The region’s terrain is hilly and landslide-prone, with states like Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh experiencing frequent slope failures—211 landslides recorded in Mizoram alone in June 2025.

    • High Rainfall Intensity: The Northeast receives 2,500–3,500 mm of rainfall annually (IMD), making it flood-prone. In June 2025, Silchar received 42 cm in a single day, causing river overflow.

    • Inadequate Infrastructure: Many flood and erosion control projects under the Flood Management and Border Area Programme (FMBAP) remain incomplete in states like Manipur, as pointed out by local leadership.

    • Unplanned Urbanisation: Encroachments along riverbanks and poor drainage infrastructure in Imphal, Guwahati, and Aizawl worsen flood impacts.

    • Limited Disaster Preparedness: While the State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) exist, real-time early warning and localised response mechanisms are insufficient.

2. Impact of Recent Floods (May–June 2025)

    • Human Cost: 34 deaths across 6 states; major casualties in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Tripura.

    • Infrastructure Damage: Over 900 houses damaged, 7 power substations in Mizoram rendered defunct, and roads blocked at 83 locations.

    • Transport Disruption: Train services suspended in Barak Valley due to track submergence.

    • Tourism and Economy: 1,500 tourists stranded in Sikkim; economic losses expected to run into hundreds of crores.

Way Forward

    • Strengthen Flood Early Warning Systems: Expand CWC’s flood forecasting network and integrate it with IMD’s Doppler radar data for hyperlocal warnings.

    • Complete and Audit Flood Projects: Expedite FMBAP projects with third-party auditing and community monitoring in vulnerable districts like Imphal East and Karimganj.

    • Eco-sensitive Zoning: Implement zoning regulations to restrict construction in ecologically sensitive areas; incentivize green infrastructure like bio-swales and sponge cities.

    • Build Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Adopt Build Back Better principles from NDMA guidelines; train local engineers in disaster-resilient housing.

    • Empower Local Institutions: Strengthen Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies in disaster management planning, and deploy State Disaster Response Forces (SDRFs) with better training and equipment.

Conclusion

The recurring floods and landslides in Northeast India reveal a governance gap between policy and implementation. While the region’s ecological and cultural uniqueness must be preserved, it also requires urgent investment in climate resilience, institutional coordination, and community-based disaster preparedness. Turning vulnerability into resilience is the key to protecting lives and sustaining development.

Syllabus Mapping – GS Paper 3

    • Disaster and Disaster Management

    • Infrastructure

    • Climate Change Vulnerability and Mitigation

    • Role of NGOs and Government Agencies

Previous Year Mains Question Linkages

    • GS3 (2022): “Discuss the types of landslides and suggest suitable measures for their mitigation.”

    • GS3 (2021): “Describe the benefits of integrated watershed development.”

    • GS3 (2020): “Disaster preparedness is the first step in disaster mitigation.” Discuss in the context of urban floods.

  • GS3 (2016): “With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the measures to be adopted to mitigate the impact of recent incidents of cloudbursts.”

Introduction:

The Paris Agreement (2015) set the target of limiting global temperature rise to below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels. However, with 2023 and 2024 being record warm years and conflicting model-based estimates about the breach of the 1.5°C mark, climate science increasingly debates whether the emphasis on global mean temperature is distracting from urgent, localised adaptation and disaster response efforts.

Body:

  1. Limitations of Global Mean Warming Focus:
  • Uncertain Models: Climate projections beyond 2050 are based on speculative socio-economic scenarios (IPCC’s Shared Socioeconomic Pathways) and lack precision.
  • Ambiguous Thresholds: The 1.5°C/2°C benchmarks are arbitrary, originally based on William Nordhaus’ 1970s economic modelling; they are not scientifically precise cut-offs for catastrophe.
  • Measurement Challenges: Estimates of global mean temperature vary across models and methods, reducing reliability for short-term decision-making.
  1. Growing Climate Disasters Demand Local Focus:
  • Intensifying Disasters: Events like Valencia floods (2024), India’s 2023 heatwaves, and prolonged droughts are more frequent, unpredictable, and devastating.
  • Rising Costs: According to the UNDRR (2023), climate-related losses now average $300 billion/year globally, disproportionately affecting the Global South.

III. Gaps in Disaster Preparedness:

  • Forecasting to Action Gaps: Even when forecasts are accurate, lack of last-mile communication and institutional readiness causes avoidable loss.
  • Need for Hyperlocal Forecasting: Effective adaptation requires forecasts from days to decades, especially for heatwaves, floods, and cyclones.

Way Forward:

  1. Invest in Short-to-Medium-Term Climate Models:
    • Strengthen IMD, INCOIS, and MoES for decadal-scale projections and granular forecasting.
  2. Expand Early Warning Systems:
    • Align with the UN’s Early Warnings for All (EW4All) framework.
    • Ensure real-time alerts reach last-mile populations through mobile, radio, and local governance systems.
  3. Mainstream Climate Risk in Planning:
    • Integrate local climate risk data in Smart Cities, AMRUT, PM Awas Yojana, and District Disaster Plans.
  4. Post-Event Accountability and Learning:
    • Create climate disaster performance audits to analyse forecasting failures and institutional lapses.
  5. Democratise Climate Communication:
    • Use vernacular languages, infographics, and community leaders to promote preparedness.

Conclusion:

While limiting global warming remains critical for long-term planetary survival, it must not divert attention from real-time climate disasters that require urgent and localised adaptation. A climate-resilient future will not be built by waiting for global averages to stabilize but by ensuring actionable early warnings, decentralised planning, and resilient systems at the community level.

Link to UPSC Syllabus:

  • GS Paper III – Environment: Climate Change, Conservation, Environmental Degradation
  • GS Paper III – Disaster Management: Risk mitigation, Early Warning Systems, Institutional Preparedness
  • GS Paper II – Governance: Role of NGOs, SHGs, and local institutions in disaster response

Relevant Previous Year Questions (PYQs):

  • GS III (2023): “‘Climate change is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India be affected by climate change?”
  • GS III (2021): “Describe the benefits of integrated watershed development programmes in addressing water scarcity and climate resilience.”
  • GS III (2020): “Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process.”
 

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